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Q: "Selling Sex for Visas: Sex Tourism as a Stepping-stone to International Migration," Denise BrennanAddressing the myth that sex workers around the globe are simply victims of exploitation and domination, Denise Brennan considers the case of women sex workers in Sosua, Dominican Republic. These women - predominantly poor, single mothers with limited educations - see sex work not as a survival strategy, but as an advancement strategy. They have meager job opportunities and can make more money more quickly selling sex than in any other job available to them. Ultimately many hope to obtain marriage proposals from wealthy sex tourists, and with them visas to places with greater economic opportunities. Brennan sites these strategies as examples of the "savviness and resourcefulness of the so-called powerless."Dominican sex workers make a distinction between marriage for love and marriage for:a. obtaining fathers for their childrenb. romancec. making a familyd. visas

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Q: "The Invention of Heterosexuality," Jonathan Ned KatzThe author documents the history and invention of the term heterosexuality as a means of categorizing sexual relationships. The author emphasizes how sexuality has been closely linked to structural power and the means of production within a society throughout history. He argues that an ahistorical approach to studying sexuality continues to privilege "normal" and "natural" sexual expression.In Sexual Behavior of the Human Male, Kinsey found that:a. homosexual experience is virtually absent within males.b. homosexual experience is rare among young and middle-aged males.c. homosexual experience is more common than was previously thought.d. homosexuality is rare among elderly men.

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Q: "The Invention of Heterosexuality," Jonathan Ned Katz The author documents the history and invention of the term heterosexuality as a means of categorizing sexual relationships. The author emphasizes how sexuality has been closely linked to structural power and the means of production within a society throughout history. He argues that an ahistorical approach to studying sexuality continues to privilege "normal" and "natural" sexual expression. Katz refers to the time period when the heterosexual norm went almost unchallenged as: a. the cult of domesticity b. heterosexual hegemony c. hetero/homo duo d. heterosexual mystique

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Q: "The Invention of Heterosexuality," Jonathan Ned KatzThe author documents the history and invention of the term heterosexuality as a means of categorizing sexual relationships. The author emphasizes how sexuality has been closely linked to structural power and the means of production within a society throughout history. He argues that an ahistorical approach to studying sexuality continues to privilege "normal" and "natural" sexual expression.During the Early Victorian True Love era (1820-1860), the human body was thought of as a means for:a. pleasureb. sensualityc. procreationd. consumption

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Q: "The Invention of Heterosexuality," Jonathan Ned Katz The author documents the history and invention of the term heterosexuality as a means of categorizing sexual relationships. The author emphasizes how sexuality has been closely linked to structural power and the means of production within a society throughout history. He argues that an ahistorical approach to studying sexuality continues to privilege "normal" and "natural" sexual expression. According to Katz, the idea of heterosexuality is a modern invention, dating to the ______ century. a. early 16th b. late 17th c. early 18th d. late 19th

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Q: "The Prison and the Closet," Patricia Hill Collins Patricia Hill Collins considers the intersecting relationship between racism and heterosexism. She argues that the assumption that these two hegemonic ideologies represent separate systems of oppression obscures the fact that racism and sexism rely upon each other for meaning. Without sacrificing the acknowledgement of differences in the way that racism and heterosexism manifest, the author shows that the two systems converge and that both systems affect the everyday lives of all people. Racism and heterosexism use similar mechanisms to maintain: a. racial and sexual hierarchies b. race and class hierarchies c. discrimination in education d. prejudice

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Q: "The Prison and the Closet," Patricia Hill CollinsPatricia Hill Collins considers the intersecting relationship between racism and heterosexism. She argues that the assumption that these two hegemonic ideologies represent separate systems of oppression obscures the fact that racism and sexism rely upon each other for meaning. Without sacrificing the acknowledgement of differences in the way that racism and heterosexism manifest, the author shows that the two systems converge and that both systems affect the everyday lives of all people.The sexual exploitation of women has been a basic ingredient of _____________, according to the authors:a. sexismb. prisonsc. closetsd. racism

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Q: The Gendered Rice Bowl: The Sexual Politics of Service Work in Urban China", Amy Hanser. Hanser examines the shifts in perception of femininity that have occurred in China during the country's transition from socialism to its current, more capitalistic stage. At first she discusses the ways in which young women were portrayed as strong (physically and mentally) and part of the agricultural labor force that would drive socialism, and the associated egalitarianism. Now, however, the ideal of femininity is that of the fashion model, with middle-aged women seen as a symbol of a distant and dated past. The sexualization of women was seen via two participant observation experiences, one at a state-owned clothing store and the other a more upscale, privately owned business. The former had a more middle aged staff, with proficiency and experience being the benchmarks of success. The latter, however, emphasized a sexualized presentation from youthful sales clerks. These women, however, were seen by the older employees as being of lower social class and having less ability as workers. The overall conclusion was centered on how inequality was perpetrated and enforced by these differing approaches. According to Hanser, a woman who is admired for her work is most likely to be a(n) Agricultural worker a. Lawyer b. Mother c. Fashion model d. Agricultural worker

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Q: "Sex and Gender Through the Prism of Difference," Maxine Baca Zinn, Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo, and Michael MessnerMaxine Baca Zinn, Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo, and Michael Messner present a new framework of the study of gender. The "prism of difference" they describe broadens the traditional view of gender by recognizing the influences of social locations other than gender, and hierarchical systems other than patriarchy. This new perspective encompasses the experiences of all women, not just those defined as middle class white women, new views on men and masculinity, and the consideration of gender within a global perspective. The authors argue that by looking at gender through a "prism," instead of a patchwork of other factors, such as class, race, national identity, age, etc., the differences and inequalities recognized among both women and men will serve to expand our understanding of gender.In the 1970s, riding the wave of a resurgent feminist movement, colleges and universities began to develop women's studies courses that aimed first and foremost to make women's lives:a. tolerable.b. visible.c. acceptable.d. interesting.

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Q: "Sex and Gender Through the Prism of Difference," Maxine Baca Zinn, Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo, and Michael Messner Maxine Baca Zinn, Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo, and Michael Messner present a new framework of the study of gender. The "prism of difference" they describe broadens the traditional view of gender by recognizing the influences of social locations other than gender, and hierarchical systems other than patriarchy. This new perspective encompasses the experiences of all women, not just those defined as middle class white women, new views on men and masculinity, and the consideration of gender within a global perspective. The authors argue that by looking at gender through a "prism," instead of a patchwork of other factors, such as class, race, national identity, age, etc., the differences and inequalities recognized among both women and men will serve to expand our understanding of gender. The authors of "Gender Through the Prism of Difference," argue that traditional women's studies ignored the experiences of women who: a. were homemakers. b. were married. c. were not white and from the middle class. d. were middle class and educated.

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Q: "A Dream Deferred: Undocumented Students at CUNY," Carolina Bank Munoz Carolina Bank Munoz argues that contemporary immigration policy ignores structural conditions that force people to migrate to the United States. These policies, she argues, seek individual solutions to structural problems, thereby unfairly denying college education to undocumented students. Many undocumented students came here as children with parents who obtained visas that eventually expired. Under current policies it is difficult for these students to obtain documentation. The author advocates for passage of the Dream Act, which would make it easier for students to obtain documentation. Documentation would not only increase the life chances of the students, but would also assure that this country does not lose "a generation of extraordinarily bright and talented students..." Immigration policy is flawed because: a. it fails to keep out undocumented workers b. it seeks individual solutions to structural problems c. it seeks structural solutions to individual problems d. it creates too easy a path to legal citizenship

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Q: "A Dream Deferred: Undocumented Students at CUNY," Carolina Bank Munoz Carolina Bank Munoz argues that contemporary immigration policy ignores structural conditions that force people to migrate to the United States. These policies, she argues, seek individual solutions to structural problems, thereby unfairly denying college education to undocumented students. Many undocumented students came here as children with parents who obtained visas that eventually expired. Under current policies it is difficult for these students to obtain documentation. The author advocates for passage of the Dream Act, which would make it easier for students to obtain documentation. Documentation would not only increase the life chances of the students, but would also assure that this country does not lose "a generation of extraordinarily bright and talented students..." Why do undocumented high school students often drop out? a. They see that they have no opportunities for upward mobility. b. They want to return to their home countries. c. Their parents want them to earn wages instead of getting an education. d. They don"t value education as a means to upward mobility.

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Q: "Optional Ethnicities: For Whites Only?" Mary C. WatersMary Waters explores the difference in ethnic identities experienced by White and non-White ethnic and racial groups. Waters asserts that White ethnics are able to decide if, and what part of, their ethnic ancestry they want to claim. For White ethnics, theirs is a symbolic ethnicity, one which is individually designed and only serves to benefit White ethnics. Non-White groups do not have the same choice regarding their ethnic identities because the physical distinctions of these groups denies the choice. As a result, Waters argues, non-White ethnic group members are unable to avoid the negative experiences associated with being a member of an ethnic/racial minority group. Because White ethnics view their own ethnicities as voluntarily acquired and since those aspects of their ethnicity which are not beneficial to them are ignored, White ethnics do not recognize the involuntary nature of non-White ethnicities, nor do they identify with the racial oppression experienced by these groups. Waters points out that this understanding results in problematic race relations which can be seen on college campuses around the country. Waters argues that a cultural pluralistic society can only be achieved once the dynamics and consequences of ethnic identity are recognized by individuals and within social institutions.According to "Optional Ethnicities: For Whites Only?" as a result of the exclusion they experienced at college, Black students may form:a. militant defense groups.b. oppositional identities.c. inhibited identities.d. symbolic ethnicities.

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Q: "Optional Ethnicities: For Whites Only?" Mary C. WatersMary Waters explores the difference in ethnic identities experienced by White and non-White ethnic and racial groups. Waters asserts that White ethnics are able to decide if, and what part of, their ethnic ancestry they want to claim. For White ethnics, theirs is a symbolic ethnicity, one which is individually designed and only serves to benefit White ethnics. Non-White groups do not have the same choice regarding their ethnic identities because the physical distinctions of these groups denies the choice. As a result, Waters argues, non-White ethnic group members are unable to avoid the negative experiences associated with being a member of an ethnic/racial minority group. Because White ethnics view their own ethnicities as voluntarily acquired and since those aspects of their ethnicity which are not beneficial to them are ignored, White ethnics do not recognize the involuntary nature of non-White ethnicities, nor do they identify with the racial oppression experienced by these groups. Waters points out that this understanding results in problematic race relations which can be seen on college campuses around the country. Waters argues that a cultural pluralistic society can only be achieved once the dynamics and consequences of ethnic identity are recognized by individuals and within social institutions.According to Mary Waters in "Optional Ethnicities: For Whites Only?" White ethnics fail to recognize:a. the difference between individualistic symbolic ethnic identity and a socially enforced and imposed racial identity.b. the similarity between individualistic symbolic ethnic identity and a socially enforced and imposed racial identity.c. that some ethnicities are more important than others.d. that all ethnicities are merely symbolic in today's worlds.

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Q: "Optional Ethnicities: For Whites Only?" Mary C. WatersMary Waters explores the difference in ethnic identities experienced by White and non-White ethnic and racial groups. Waters asserts that White ethnics are able to decide if, and what part of, their ethnic ancestry they want to claim. For White ethnics, theirs is a symbolic ethnicity, one which is individually designed and only serves to benefit White ethnics. Non-White groups do not have the same choice regarding their ethnic identities because the physical distinctions of these groups denies the choice. As a result, Waters argues, non-White ethnic group members are unable to avoid the negative experiences associated with being a member of an ethnic/racial minority group. Because White ethnics view their own ethnicities as voluntarily acquired and since those aspects of their ethnicity which are not beneficial to them are ignored, White ethnics do not recognize the involuntary nature of non-White ethnicities, nor do they identify with the racial oppression experienced by these groups. Waters points out that this understanding results in problematic race relations which can be seen on college campuses around the country. Waters argues that a cultural pluralistic society can only be achieved once the dynamics and consequences of ethnic identity are recognized by individuals and within social institutions.According to "Optional Ethnicities: For Whites Only?," social scientists consider ethnicity primarily a:a. belief in a common ancestry.b. social phenomenon.c. biological phenomenon.d. matrilineal phenomenon.

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Q: "Must-See TV: South Asian Characterizations in American Popular Media," Bhoomi K. Thakore Thankore examines the changing role South Asian and Indians have had in American popular culture, and the rather rapid increase in TV characters of this background. The surprise popularity of Slumdog Millionaire is cited as a possible reason for this, as well as the ability for Indian characters to act as a token minority in place of Arab and Muslim characters in a post-9/11 society. Along with this though has been a racialization of South Asians and the associated stereotyping in society. Thakore examines the evolution of Indian characters, from dangerous savages in India to cab drivers and convenience store owners in urban areas, and increasingly as high achieving students. The stereotype of the low-earning service employee is one not consistent with the academic and economic achievements of Indians and South Asians, while the more modern presence as scientists and doctors is more realistic. What is largely considered to be the main reason that South Asians are subject to "forever foreigner" status? a. Skin color b. Lack of educational opportunities c. Lack of employment opportunities d. Religious discrimination

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Q: "Is This A White Country, or What?" Lillian RubinLillian Rubin demonstrates the links between economic competition, racial prejudice, and the anti-immigration sentiments expressed by working class whites. Rubin points out that while there is a long history of racial hostility toward immigrant groups in America, the limited employment opportunities and the darker skin tones of recent immigrants have intensified these hostilities. Racism and nativism, according to Rubin, is apparent in Whites' views of recent immigrants and people of color. The visibility of and the demands for recognition expressed by these groups are seen as threats to whites' economic livelihood and their understanding of America. Rubin's interviews with working class Whites illustrate this point, as well as two contradictions evident in Whites' attitudes toward immigrants and people of color: Whites resent the unity of these groups, yet they exclude them from dominant society. Whites criticize members of these groups for their perceived failures as well as their successes. Rubin asserts that Whites have begun to reclaim their ethnic heritage as a way to secure what they see as their hard earned position of privilege in American society.According to "Is This A White Country, or What?" the visibility of immigrant groups and people of color has:a. been well-received by most Whites.b. led Whites to consider their own racial identity.c. meant an end to racism in the U.S.d. created unity of all races in the struggle against racism.

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Q: "Health and Wealth: Our Appalling Health Inequality Reflects and Reinforces Society's Other Gaps," Lawrence R. Jacobs and James A. Morone Jacobs and Morone address the relatively low ranking of the United States relative to other countries on issues influencing life chances, particularly those relevant to health and longevity. They note disparities within the United States based on wealth, and identify three causes of health woes including poverty, inequality, and the organization of the health care system. They conclude that while other countries have followed "three paths to good health" the United States has supported public policies that compromise the health of most of its citizens. According to Jacobs and Morone, 33 million people in the United States live with: a. food insecurity & homelessness b. untreated AIDS c. alcohol abuse and/or drug addiction d. unemployment and no health insurance

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Q: "The Intersection of Poverty Discourses: Race, Class, Culture, and Gender", Debra Henderson and Ann Tickamyer Henderson and Tickamyer focus on the stereotyped image of welfare as being synonymous with African Americans, and how that is not accurate. The work of Moynihan (1965) began linking welfare with poverty as a function of Black culture, broken families, and a "tangle of pathology", blaming the poverty issues on a lack of personal responsibility rather than systemic discrimination. Welfare reform has then been consistently tied to racial politics and remains a controversial issue. As a point of comparison, they turn the focus to rural welfare recipients in Appalachia, and find that due to their geographic isolation, women especially suffer from hardships due to the lack of resources that are more available in urban settings. Welfare reform policy largely ignores the role of racial discrimination in a. Ability to secure employment b. Ability to attain safe and affordable housing c. Ability to obtain childcare d. All of these choices are correct

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Q: "Is Capitalism Gendered and Racialized?" Joan AckerCapitalism has been dominated by white males and built by a subordinated gender and race segregated labor force. It has been buttressed by a largely unpaid force of caregivers who are primarily female. These gender and race divisions of labor still exist and are global in scope. Furthermore, capitalist endeavors are gendered in that hegemonic masculinities define dominant values in the norms of corporate conduct.Aggressiveness, decisiveness, competition, a focus on winning and defeating the enemy, and taking of territory from others are characteristics of:a. successful CEOs.b. successful capitalist organizations.c. hegemonic masculinities.d. all of these answers are correct.

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Q: "Is Capitalism Gendered and Racialized?" Joan Acker Capitalism has been dominated by white males and built by a subordinated gender and race segregated labor force. It has been buttressed by a largely unpaid force of caregivers who are primarily female. These gender and race divisions of labor still exist and are global in scope. Furthermore, capitalist endeavors are gendered in that hegemonic masculinities define dominant values in the norms of corporate conduct. Masculinity is: a. toughness b. strength c. violent d. a contested term

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Q: "Race as Class," Herbert J. Gans Noting that most biologists argue that scientifically there can be no human "races' and that sociologists argue that concepts of race are socially constructed, Gans links the persistent lay definition of "race" to the hierarchy of social class in the U.S. The laity, he claims, notice variations in select physical characteristics and "see" these variations as markers of individual races. The lay public then uses their definitions of race to place individuals in hierarchal categories that correspond to social class locations. Gans further claims that many immigrant groups were "blanched" or "whitened" in the lay imagination once those groups experienced upward mobility. This was not the case, he says for African Americans. While the reasons for this exception are a "mystery" to Gans, he expects it to persist unless class hierarchies finally disappear "in some utopian future." Attitude surveys indicate that over the years White prejudice has: a. declined b. increased c. become the only reason that racism persists d. been limited to ideas about new groups of immigrants

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Q: "Are Asian Americans Becoming "White"?" Min Zhou Zhou discusses the way that, officially and unofficially, Asian Americans are more and more often being combined with Whites as having similar experiences. Unofficially they are considered the "model minority", with some achieving successes consistent with the American Dream, and officially the fact that the two groups are combined when it comes to equal opportunity programs. Zhou first criticizes this for the fact that Asian American is a designation that includes people from a multitude of different countries of origin, each having different experiences both in the past and during their time in the United States. The "model minority" label is seen as being problematic for reinforcing the stereotype that racism no longer exists: that any other racial or ethnic group should be able to achieve the same. It also ignores the fact that different Asian American groups have achieved different levels of assimilation and social class standing, and are not a heterogeneous group that can be described with a singular label. Zhou describes that most Asian Americans are not seeing to become "White", but see that as the standard norm for American society, and their own identity is more nationalistic (American) than racial. However, the perspective that Asian Americans would be able to achieve "Whiteness" would also minimize and ignore the impact of anti-Asian discrimination and racism that is still present in American society. Which of the following Asian American subgroups are the largest in the United States? a. Japanese American b. Chinese American c. Korean American d. Indian American

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Q: "Are Asian Americans Becoming "White"?" Min Zhou Zhou discusses the way that, officially and unofficially, Asian Americans are more and more often being combined with Whites as having similar experiences. Unofficially they are considered the "model minority", with some achieving successes consistent with the American Dream, and officially the fact that the two groups are combined when it comes to equal opportunity programs. Zhou first criticizes this for the fact that Asian American is a designation that includes people from a multitude of different countries of origin, each having different experiences both in the past and during their time in the United States. The "model minority" label is seen as being problematic for reinforcing the stereotype that racism no longer exists: that any other racial or ethnic group should be able to achieve the same. It also ignores the fact that different Asian American groups have achieved different levels of assimilation and social class standing, and are not a heterogeneous group that can be described with a singular label. Zhou describes that most Asian Americans are not seeing to become "White", but see that as the standard norm for American society, and their own identity is more nationalistic (American) than racial. However, the perspective that Asian Americans would be able to achieve "Whiteness" would also minimize and ignore the impact of anti-Asian discrimination and racism that is still present in American society. Which of the following Asian American groups are overrepresented with lower education and lower skilled employment? a. Taiwanese American b. Filipino American c. Indian American d. Laotian American

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Q: "What White Supremacists Taught a Jewish Scholar about Identity,"Abby L. Ferber Abby L. Ferber examines the interdependence of systems of oppression. Her research on white supremacy reveals the connection white supremacists groups make between anti-Semitism and racism in their efforts to maintain the dominant position of Whites in society. Ferber asserts that the changing racial classification of Jews, as revealed in their history, demonstrates the social construction of race. Ferber contrasts her own experience as a Jewish woman, who racially identifies herself as White, with that of her ancestors who experienced discrimination based on their designation as an inferior, non-White race. The variability of racial classifications directly challenges the white supremacists view of innate, and undeniable, White supremacy. Ferber contends that in order to maintain their position of racial superiority, white supremacists target Jews in an attempt to deny their evolved racial classification, thereby denying the relativeness and ambiguity of race. According to Ferber, Caucasian Jews today are a: a. small group in the United States. b. strong group in the United States. c. privileged group in the United States. d. fiction, because "Caucasians' are one race and "Jews' are another.

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Q: "Color-Blind Privilege: The Social and Political Functions of Erasing the Color Line in Post Race America," Charles A. GallagherGallagher argues that a new form of racist thinking, an ideology called color-blind racism, has become dominant among whites in America. Media and popular culture have created an illusion of equality by reducing race to cultural symbols that are marketed to everyone. Symbols of racial equality are embodied in the images of successful personalities in politics and sports, as well as in commodities as diverse as music, clothing, condiments, and cars. This focus on race as merely symbolic allows a majority of whites to believe that racial harmony prevails, institutional racism has been eliminated, and race no longer shapes life chances. This myth buttresses the deeply held belief that America is a meritocracy and that therefore any advantages that whites have now relative to racial minorities are earned advantages, achieved through individual effort. White privilege is thus rendered invisible, and support for programs that address problems caused by institutional racism is undermined.A social system that awards socio-economic success solely based on the effort of individualsis called a(n):a. class hierarchyb. meritocracyc. racial hierarchyd. ideology

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Q: "Color-Blind Privilege: The Social and Political Functions of Erasing the Color Line in Post Race America," Charles A. GallagherGallagher argues that a new form of racist thinking, an ideology called color-blind racism, has become dominant among whites in America. Media and popular culture have created an illusion of equality by reducing race to cultural symbols that are marketed to everyone. Symbols of racial equality are embodied in the images of successful personalities in politics and sports, as well as in commodities as diverse as music, clothing, condiments, and cars. This focus on race as merely symbolic allows a majority of whites to believe that racial harmony prevails, institutional racism has been eliminated, and race no longer shapes life chances. This myth buttresses the deeply held belief that America is a meritocracy and that therefore any advantages that whites have now relative to racial minorities are earned advantages, achieved through individual effort. White privilege is thus rendered invisible, and support for programs that address problems caused by institutional racism is undermined.National polls indicate that a majority of whites now believe that racial discrimination:a. explains the persistence of racial inequalityb. is systematicc. has been eliminatedd. is still a problem, but only in the south

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Q: "White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack," Peggy McIntoshPeggy McIntosh explores the invisibility of racial privilege. She argues that Whites tend to be unaware of the privilege they have as members of the dominant group. To illustrate this point she compares her own experiences with denied male privilege to her own limited perception of the privilege she enjoys because she is White. In an effort to challenge this lack of awareness, she lists forty-six examples of the invisible privilege she experiences in her everyday life that people of color do not. She points out that these daily benefits of being white make her life easier. For example, the ability to shop without being followed, to count on her skin color not causing suspicion of her financial reliability, or even the ability to find blemish cover to match her skin tone reflects her white privilege. She argues that for Whites these occurrences are largely taken for granted. They are expected, assumed to be the normal experiences of everyday life. For people of color, however, they are constant reminders of the struggle involved in all aspects of life when one's position in society is reflected as outside of the norm.McIntosh identifies positive and negative aspects of privilege; unearned advantage and conferred dominance. The advantage experienced by the privileged group can be unearned, merely as a consequence of their position, or it can be created through dominance yielded because of their position. Both aspects challenge the notion that one's experience in society is based solely on one's merit, and recognizing this challenges the denial surrounding systems of privilege and oppression. McIntosh contends that once the privileged can no longer deny the benefits intrinsic to their position, they must then decide to either destroy or maintain the system from which they benefit.McIntosh believes race and sex are not the only advantaging systems at work. We need to similarly examine the daily experience of having other advantages such as:a. age, work, money or experience.b. age, ethnicity, physical ability, nationality, religion or sexual orientation.c. age, behavior, attitude or privilege.d. beauty, wealth and fame.

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Q: "White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack," Peggy McIntosh Peggy McIntosh explores the invisibility of racial privilege. She argues that Whites tend to be unaware of the privilege they have as members of the dominant group. To illustrate this point she compares her own experiences with denied male privilege to her own limited perception of the privilege she enjoys because she is White. In an effort to challenge this lack of awareness, she lists forty-six examples of the invisible privilege she experiences in her everyday life that people of color do not. She points out that these daily benefits of being white make her life easier. For example, the ability to shop without being followed, to count on her skin color not causing suspicion of her financial reliability, or even the ability to find blemish cover to match her skin tone reflects her white privilege. She argues that for Whites these occurrences are largely taken for granted. They are expected, assumed to be the normal experiences of everyday life. For people of color, however, they are constant reminders of the struggle involved in all aspects of life when one's position in society is reflected as outside of the norm. McIntosh identifies positive and negative aspects of privilege; unearned advantage and conferred dominance. The advantage experienced by the privileged group can be unearned, merely as a consequence of their position, or it can be created through dominance yielded because of their position. Both aspects challenge the notion that one's experience in society is based solely on one's merit, and recognizing this challenges the denial surrounding systems of privilege and oppression. McIntosh contends that once the privileged can no longer deny the benefits intrinsic to their position, they must then decide to either destroy or maintain the system from which they benefit. The author believes Whiteness protected her from many kinds of: a. adjustments, fears and actions b. hostility, distress and violence c. fears, violence and adjustments d. depression, anxieties, and self defeating behaviors

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Q: "The First Americans: Americans Indians," Matthew SnippMatthew Snipp presents a historical summary of the United States' treatment of American Indians: removal, assimilation, the Indian New Deal, termination and relocation, and self determination. In the early 1800s removal of American Indians was the goal of the United States. Increased population and newly acquired land encouraged the push of American Indians westward, first through negotiated treaties and ultimately through forced removal. These actions resulted in severe hardship for American Indians physically and culturally. At the end of the 1800s the government policy regarding American Indians shifted to assimilation, or rather "humane extinction." The goal of the government, Snipp points out was to "civilize" American Indians through religion, education, ownership of property, and agricultural careers. The effect of assimilation on American Indians was the loss and disorganization of land, the impact of which is still being felt today.In the early 1930s the government encompassed American Indians in the New Deal programs. This shift in treatment demonstrated a new respect for American Indian culture and land. Economic and infrastructure support was granted to American Indian reservations, and tribal governance was allowed. American Indian policy took a different shift after WWII with the goals of termination and relocation. The United States government sought to terminate their dealing with American Indians and relocate American Indians to urban areas. In the era of the Civil Rights movement, yet another shift in United States and American Indian relations occurred. "Self-determination," the goal of American Indian autonomy, became the focus resulting in greater control of tribal governments and the end to termination policies. Snipp concludes with a discussion of the current status of American Indians. Population growth among American Indians has increased on reservations and in Urban areas. Snipp points out that both of these segments of the American Indian population face economic hardship. Urban American Indians also face the struggle of maintaining their culture away from reservations. Pan-Indianism has served to unite American Indian tribes in their fight for survival.Matthew Snipp notes in "The First Americans: Americans Indians," that American Indians living in urban areas have been helped by:a. the government.b. reservations.c. pan-Indianism.d. altruism.

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