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Archaeology
Q:
Agriculture developed only once roughly 10,000 years ago in the Near East, and from there spread rapidly throughout much of the world.
Q:
To an archaeologist, "civilization" refers only to those cultures with writing systems, public performance in the form of plays, and full-time musicians.
Q:
Prior to about 12,000 years ago, all humans lived in chiefdoms.
Q:
Although unilineal cultural evolution collapsed under the assault by Boas and his students and is still rejected by anthropology today, archaeological data do show strong regularities in human cultural evolution.
Q:
The comparative method of 19th century social science took diversity in the world's cultures and put them in an evolutionary sequence. Those with "simple" technology were at the bottom of the scale, and those with the most complex technology were at the top.
Q:
John Lubbock's influential archaeology textbook Prehistoric Times (1865) led to the belief that contemporary "primitives" were living relics of prehistory; therefore questions about the past could be answered simply by observing a living culture that approximated the archaeological culture in question.
Q:
A basic knowledge of plant reproduction is necessary for an agriculturalist, but such knowledge is not sufficient to inspire all foragers to transform themselves into agriculturalists.
Q:
Ethnographic research has turned up evidence of hunters and gatherers who know about _______________but who continue to _____________________.
a. Social complexity/remain archaic
b. Fishing/farm
c. Agriculture/hunt and gather
d. Hunting/fish
Q:
Once archaeological data began to accumulate, archaeologists shifted their attention from _________________of plant and animal domestication to ____________.
a. Species/varieties
b. Dates/places
c. What and when/why
d. Biology/culture
Q:
"Archaic" in relation to states is used to
a. Distinguish ancient social forms from modern industrial states.
b. Distinguish ancient forms of society with elected officials and prime ministers.
c. Distinguish outdated forms of society.
d. Distinguish states with small, declining population numbers.
Q:
Egalitarian societies are associated with _________and ____________.
a. Intensive farming/ domestication of animals
b. Hunting and gathering/agriculture
c. Hunting and gathering/horticulture
d. Horticulture/agriculture
Q:
Ethnocentrism means
a. The study of ethnic ideology.
b. The attitude or belief that one ethnicity is shared by all.
c. The attitude or belief that one's own cultural ways are superior to another.
d. A force that ethnicity's apply to increase social complexity.
Q:
Anthropology ___________________the paradigm of unilineal cultural evolution.
a. Still embraces
b. Recently discarded
c. Does not recognize as important to the history of anthropological thought
d. Long ago discarded
Q:
A basic knowledge of plant reproduction is ________________ for an agriculturalist.
a. Sufficient
b. Necessary
c. Critical
d. Nonessential
Q:
When analyzing the origins of agriculture
a. There is a single prime mover to account for the development
b. There is no single prime mover to account for the development
c. Various paradigms each contribute something to a final explanation.
d. B and C
Q:
Archaeology constructs specific historical sequences in order to
a. Establish theories about necessary conditions.
b. Establish theories about major cultural evolutionary transitions.
c. Compare and then look for patterns to determine what conditions are necessary and sufficient to explain major cultural evolutionary transitions.
d. Argue about the rise of agriculture in the New vs. Old World.
Q:
The difference between sufficient and necessary conditions in an explanation is that sufficient conditions
a. Are those that must exist for a change to happen.
b. Are those that are the maximum ones needed for a change to occur.
c. Are those that are the minimum ones needed for a change to occur.
d. Are easier to ascertain than are necessary conditions.
Q:
Explanations for the collapse of culture on Rapa Nui include:
a. Surrounding waters lacked reefs that support fish for food.
b. They cut down trees to build homes and canoes.
c. Rats feasted on pine nuts and birds' eggs.
d. All of the above.
Q:
What can likely explain the formation of the Maya state?
a. Stress on food resources created by high population density.
b. The need for an overarching system of integration.
c. Opportunities for economic control.
d. All of the above.
Q:
The Maya developed three calendrical accounts of time using complex astronomical observations and mathematics. Which two calendar types overlap so that a renewal point is reached every 52 years?
a. The Long Count and the Vague Year.
b. The Vague Year and the Sacred Almanac.
c. The Sacred Almanac and the Long Count.
d. None; the Mayans only used a single calendar.
Q:
Maya hieroglyphics were used to record:
a. Economic information relating to trade networks.
b. Significant events in Maya history.
c. Information about human sacrifice.
d. Information about farming techniques.
Q:
Which of the following is true of Maya kings?
a. They claimed to be descended from the gods, and conducted rituals to appease the gods and prevent the universe from collapsing.
b. They received annual tribute from conquered populations, and allowed lesser nobles to earn privileges and acquire control over conquered resources by helping the king.
c. They competed with one another to determine who was the greatest among them, using war to subdue unruly neighbors as well as to demonstrate their ability to prevent chaos in the world.
d. All of the above.
Q:
The Classic period (AD250-700), when the lowland Maya took on the characteristics of the archaic state, was characterized by continuous population growth. Survey data indicate that as many as ___________ people lived in the lowland Maya area at this time.
a. 10 thousand.
b. 500 thousand.
c. 1 million.
d. 10 million.
Q:
The _____________ hypothesis, proposed by Robert Carneiro, attributes the origin of the state to a combination of population growth and limited agricultural resources which leads to increased warfare, which in turn fosters centralized political organization.
a. Irrigation hypothesis.
b. Warfare and circumscription hypothesis.
c. Hilly flanks hypothesis.
d. Density-equilibrium hypothesis.
Q:
The "irrigation hypothesis" argues that large-scale irrigation was directly responsible for the origin of archaic states. This hypothesis was suggested by:
a. Karl Wittfogel, who argued that irrigation inherently calls for regulation of water use and an extraordinary level of coordination above the individual farmer.
b. Robert Carneiro, who argued that irrigation would lead to fights over land rights.
c. Karl Wittfogel, who argued that irrigation would lead to fights over land rights.
d. Robert Carneiro, who argued that irrigation inherently calls for regulation of water use and an extraordinary level of coordination above the individual farmer.
Q:
All of the following characterize the rise of archaic states, except:
a. Monumental architecture.
b. Warfare.
c. Hunting and gathering.
d. Market economies.
Q:
Which of the following is likely to have played a part in the origins of agriculture?
a. Climatic change; foragers could not become agriculturalists until the environment was capable of supporting agriculture.
b. Population pressure; people were required to expand their diets and rely more heavily on plants.
c. Human intentionality; changes in wild cereals suggest that humans intended to increase harvest productivity and efficiency.
d. All of the above.
Q:
The period during which people began using ground stone tools, manufacturing ceramics, and relying on domesticated plants and animals is known in the Near East as the:
a. Natufian.
b. Upper Paleolithic.
c. Neolithic.
d. Younger Dryas.
Q:
A(n) ____________ perspective demonstrates that the first plants to be domesticated and eventually turned into today's agricultural staples began as wild plants with low return rates, plants that were used when other, better resources were depleted.
a. Optimal foraging.
b. Historical particularist.
c. Post-processual.
d. Unilineal evolutionary.
Q:
The "density-equilibrium theory," which explains the origins of agriculture as a product of population growth that eventually causes the human population to exceed the hunting and gathering carrying capacity of an environment, was proposed by:
a. Childe.
b. Binford.
c. Carneiro.
d. Braidwood.
Q:
The theory proposed by Robert Braidwood, arguing that agriculture arose in areas where the wild ancestors of domesticated wheat and barley grew, and resulted from human efforts to increase the productivity and stability of their food base, is the:
a. Hilly flanks theory.
b. Density-equilibrium theory.
c. Oasis theory.
d. Optimal foraging theory.
Q:
The theory made popular by V. Gordon Childe in the 1940s, explaining the origin of animal domestication as a response by animals and people to arid conditions following the end of the Pleistocene, which caused them to congregate around water sources is the:
a. Hilly flanks theory.
b. Density-equilibrium theory.
c. Oasis theory.
d. Optimal foraging theory.
Q:
Plant and animal domestication occurred independently in several centers across the globe. Which of the following is not a major independent hearth of plant domestication?
a. The Americas (North, Central, and South America).
b. Australia.
c. Central Africa.
d. Southeastern Asia.
Q:
Egalitarian societies are associated with _____________, while chiefdoms and states are associated with_____________.
a. Foraging and horticulture/intensive agriculture.
b. Foraging/horticulture.
c. Pastoralism/intensive agriculture.
d. Horticulture/pastoralism.
Q:
In anthropological terms, a civilization refers to:
a. A complex urban society with a high level of cultural achievement in the art and sciences, craft specialization, a surplus of food and/or labor, and a hierarchically stratified social organization.
b. A wide range of social formations that lie between egalitarian foragers and ranked societies that are normally horticultural and sedentary with a higher level of competition than seen among nomadic hunter-gatherers.
c. Any society that has the power to coerce, that includes military and fiscal specialists, and that is controlled by elites.
d. Any stratified society that practices full-time agriculture.
Q:
The difference between modern cultural evolutionary paradigms and 19th century unilineal evolutionism is:
a. Modern evolutionism highlights the role of ecological, demographic, and/or technological factors in conditioning cultural evolution.
b. Modern evolutionism does not contain the racist overtones inherent in 19th century unilineal evolutionary schemes.
c. Modern evolutionists agree that cultural behavior is not controlled by biology, and that the human past is much more complex than 19th century evolutionists imagined it.
d. All of the above.
Q:
If you live in a city with a high population density, with different types of specialized subsistence strategies and non-food producing specialists, where elites control access to strategic resources and where social organization is based on class membership (elite or commoner), you live in a:
a. Tribe.
b. Band.
c. State.
d. Chiefdom.
Q:
If you live in an egalitarian foraging society with a low population density that occupies temporary camps, where everyone has equal access to resources through sharing and reciprocity, where there are no permanent positions of authority, and where membership is flexible, you live in a:
a. Tribe.
b. Band.
c. State.
d. Chiefdom.
Q:
In the early 20th century, Franz Boas and his students:
a. Rejected unilineal evolution as a valid means of studying human cultural diversity.
b. Argued that all human cultures are unique and should be valued as such.
c. Argued for the accumulation of ethnographic detail and historical facts prior to the construction of any generalities about human cultural evolution.
d. All of the above.
Q:
Nineteenth century social Darwinism provided justification for:
a. Helping primitive peoples escape a fate of extinction.
b. Boasian ideas of historical particularism and cultural relativism.
c. A rejection of ethnocentrism.
d. Unfettered economic competition and warfare.
Q:
In the 19th century's most influential archaeology textbook, Pre-historic Times, as Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages (1865), John Lubbock argued that:
a. Because the world's food supply is inherently inadequate, infants in primitive societies must struggle to survive; those who do survive possess favorable characteristics, and thus pass these characteristics on to future generations.
b. Conflict between societies and between classes within the same society benefits humanity in the long run because it removes unfit individuals and social forms.
c. Contemporary "primitives" were living approximations of what Europeans used to be (in other words, these primitives had not evolved to the same degree that Europeans had).
d. Human cultural evolution could be divided into three phases: savagery, barbarism, and civilization.
Q:
The process through which some individuals survive and reproduce at higher rates than others because of their genetic heritage is known as:
a. Natural selection.
b. Social Darwinism.
c. Unilineal cultural evolution.
d. Biological evolution.
Q:
One effect of the 19th century comparative method was:
a. Indigenous peoples were viewed from their own historical perspective, rather than a grand sequence of human evolution.
b. The domination of "primitive" peoples by Europeans was legitimized because it was seen as the natural order of things.
c. Scientific proof that humanity was improving biologically, culturally, intellectually, and spiritually.
d. All of the above.
Q:
Unilineal cultural evolution and the comparative method were rooted in:
a. Renaissance philosophy.
b. Enlightenment philosophy.
c. Social Darwinism.
d. Processualism.
Q:
While today the comparative method refers to the testing of hypotheses against a range of human societies, in the 19th century the comparative method:
a. Tested hypotheses only within the same types of societies; in other words, only egalitarian hunter-gatherers of arctic environments, or only stratified desert agriculturalists would be examined.
b. Was a political tool used to argue against the racist idea that some living peoples had made it further up the evolutionary ladder of progress than others.
c. Translated cultural diversity into an evolutionary sequence in which different living peoples represented different stages in humanity's march towards progress.
d. Referred to the same thing; there has been little change in how the comparative method is used since the 19th century.
Q:
The position held by Franz Boas, which maintained that each culture is the product of its own unique sequence of developments and in which chance plays a major role in bringing about change is called:
a. Unilineal evolution.
b. Cultural relativism.
c. Social Darwinism.
d. Historical particularism.
Q:
The paradigm known as unilineal cultural evolution:
a. Argues that human societies have evolved along a single developmental trajectory, with western civilization as the most advanced evolutionary stage.
b. Argues that cultures can only be understood in their own terms, and cannot be usefully compared to other cultures.
c. Argues against ethnocentrism, stressing the equality of all cultures, with none superior to any other.
d. Has proven extremely useful for understanding cultural change; most anthropologists operate within this paradigm today.
Q:
Studying ancient modes of thought requires the interpretation of symbols, objects, or acts that by cultural convention stand for something else with which they have no necessary connection.
Q:
Lewis-Williams suggests that vision quests may have been held in the deepest cave spaces.
Q:
Beneath many of the cave paintings at Lascaux there is abundant room for groups of people to have gathered and participated in rituals; the common occurrence of dense artifact scatters and hearth features in this location strongly suggests that they did so.
Q:
Lascaux cave in southern France is perhaps the most famous of all European caves, containing many chambers and passageways with magnificent cave paintings and dating to 17,000 years ago; in order to preserve the cave and the artwork within it, it is now closed to regular public visitation.
Q:
Upper Paleolithic cave art in France and Spain reached its height during the Magdalenian, the last major culture of the European Upper Paleolithic period, dating to between 16,000 and 10,000 BC.
Q:
Upper Paleolithic cave art is often found in very obscure and difficult to access places such as the deepest recesses of caves, strongly suggesting a connection between the art and religious ritual.
Q:
Many researchers argue that cognitive archaeology will be most successful when historical and ethnographic documentation is unavailable, because with the use of such data, the archaeologists' creativity and imagination are limited.
Q:
The presence of lowland crops and animals in Chavn iconography strongly suggests that lowland immigrants introduced these crops and animals to the highlands; because the highland environment is so similar to that of the lowland, the imported plants and animals would have flourished.
Q:
Iconography refers to art forms or writing systems that symbolically represent ideas about religion or cosmology.
Q:
Tobacco was introduced to the New World by Spanish explorers in the late 15th century.
Q:
All living cultures have some form of religion, and we assume that prehistoric cultures did as well.
Q:
Most archaeologists would agree that recent advances in archaeological methods and analytic techniques have made the study of prehistoric symbolic behavior as straightforward as the study of prehistoric subsistence strategies and technology.
Q:
According to the text, which of the following is not a way an individual seeks visions on a vision quest
a. Starvation
b. Dehydration
c. Exposure
d. Totems
Q:
Using some historical or ethnographic information, as burger and Miller did with Chavin art, is the most secure way to go from ______________ to ________________.
a. Meanings/ symbols
b. Symbols/ meanings
c. Totem/religion
d. Religion/ totem
Q:
Rituals in which doing something to an images of an object produces the desired effect in the real object are called
a. Structuralism
b. Totems
c. Sympathetic magic
d. Religion
Q:
Leroi-Gourhan's maps of 66 French caves suggests that cave elements clustered into four major sets of images that do not include
a. Small herbivores
b. Rare species
c. Dangerous animals
d. Domesticated animals
Q:
A shrine in which a deity reveals hidden knowledge or divine purpose is called
a. Mythological seat of power
b. Oracle
c. Throne
d. Totem
Q:
Richard Burger suggests that power in Chavin culture came from the
a. Early rulers
b. Original agriculturalists
c. Original priests
d. Women
Q:
Immigrants from the tropical forest were suggested to have introduced the lowland plants and animals to Chavin de Huantar. Plants indigenous to Amazonia include
a. Manioc
b. Potatoes
c. Rice
d. Tomatoes
Q:
The study of the origin, large-scale structure, and future of the universe is termed
a. Ritual
b. Religion
c. Iconography
d. Cosmology
Q:
A social institution containing a set of beliefs about supernatural beings and forces and one's relation to them is termed
a. Ritual
b. Iconography
c. Religion
d. Kinship
Q:
Any archaeology of the mind will have more ___________than __________ flavor because such an approach will necessarily address recovering meanings (rather than law-like statements or generalizations about human behavior.
a. Postprocessual/processual
b. Processual/postprocessual
c. Objective reasoning/subjective reasoning
d. Subjective reasoning/objective reasoning
Q:
Modern cognitive archaeology aims to do all of the following except:
a. Study the perception, description and classification of the universe.
b. Make interpretations about past cultures when there is no ethnographic data available.
c. Understand past religions.
d. Study a culture's expression of abstract ideas in art and writing systems.
Q:
How has Lewis-Williams explained the cave paintings at Lascaux?
a. The paintings represented totems, from which lineages or clans believed themselves to be descended.
b. The paintings were left by hunters seeking to mark the territory as their own, and provided a sign to other hunters that they were not welcome.
c. The paintings had no real symbolic meaning, and were essentially "art-for-art's sake", appreciated for its aesthetic value but containing little cultural meaning.
d. The paintings are related to altered states of consciousness, and ultimately represent Upper Paleolithic people pondering the meaning of life.
Q:
How was Lascaux cave discovered?
a. Accidentally, by schoolboys and a lost dog.
b. Through systematic survey of the Dordogne region of southern France, in search of caves with the potential for Upper Paleolithic art.
c. By the landowner, who fell into a shallow pit and discovered cold air rising from a hole in the pit's bottom.
d. By an avocational archaeologist who happened to be hiking in the region, and discovered artifacts near the cave's opening.
Q:
What is Lascaux II?
a. The only part of Lascaux cave that is currently open to the public.
b. A recently discovered passage leading away from the main chambers at Lascaux, and into an additional chamber complex also containing Upper Paleolithic cave art.
c. Another cave containing Upper Paleolithic cave art, located only 200 meters from Lascaux, found decades after the initial discovery of Lascaux.
d. A very precise replica of the Hall of Bulls from the real Lascaux, constructed by the French government to limit visitation and reduce damage to the real Lascaux.
Q:
Lewis-Williams has argued that much of the world's rock art is the result of shamanism. What is the basis for his argument?
a. He is operating within the paradigm of structuralism, which frequently explains human behavior as a response to culturally dictated supernatural needs.
b. He interprets the symbols depicted in rock art as representing shamans contacting the spirit world; thus the explanation for rock art lies within the rock art itself.
c. Cross-cultural psychological and neurological research showing that individuals in a trance go through three universal stages of hallucination; rock art records these stages.
d. There is no real basis for his argument; he arrived at his conclusions without the necessary data to support them and therefore demonstrates the dangers inherent in cognitive archaeological approaches.
Q:
An individual who has the power to contact the spirit world through trance, possession, or visions, and who uses this power to influence the world of the living is:
a. A totem.
b. A shaman.
c. An oracle.
d. Any or all of the above.
Q:
In Upper Paleolithic cave art, humans are:
a. Rarely represented, and when they are represented are poorly executed compared to the marvelously depicted animal figures.
b. Frequently represented, and represented in a realistic manner, similar to animal depictions.
c. Represented as deities, controlling the plant and animal world.
d. Never represented.
Q:
A ritual in which an individual seeks visions through starvation, dehydration, and exposure, used in some cultures to communicate with the supernatural world, is:
a. A vision quest.
b. Shamanism.
c. Totemism.
d. Sympathetic magic.
Q:
Leroi-Gourhan's interpretation that the symbols used in Upper Paleolithic cave art, including abstract shapes and animal figures, were ultimately male and female symbols:
a. Was widely accepted by the archaeological community at the time, and is still considered the most likely interpretation of cave art today.
b. Was based on ethnographic and ethnoarchaeological analogy, made stronger by the historical ties shared by modern Europeans and the prehistoric populations who created the cave art.
c. Provides a good example of how archaeologists can escape the paradigm within which they are working to generate an objective and unbiased interpretation of archaeological data.
d. Was most likely influenced by Freudian psychology, which was popular at the time.
Q:
Which of the following is true of the interpretation of Upper Paleolithic cave art?
a. Most archaeologists agree that cave art represents sympathetic magic, or rituals in which doing something to an image produces the desired effect in the real object (e.g., drawing pregnant bison ensures fertility, or killing a stylized animal on the cave wall guarantees hunting success).
b. Most archaeologists agree that cave art should be interpreted within the structuralist paradigm, where all symbols define binary oppositions such as male and female.
c. Because we lack any associated ethnographic data for the Upper Paleolithic, it is very difficult to securely interpret the meaning of symbols used in this art.
d. Upper Paleolithic cave art represents the earliest beginnings of the human ability to appreciate art for its own aesthetic properties; it is thus "art-for-art's-sake", and animals drawn had no particular symbolic meaning.
Q:
The paradigm that holds that human culture is the expression of unconscious modes of thought and reasoning, notably binary opposition, is:
a. Processualism.
b. Postprocessualism.
c. Structuralism.
d. Materialism.