Q&A Hero

Q: In its purest form, __________ theory argues that even crimes such as murder, rape, and assault are only bad or evil because people label them as such. a. social control b. social reaction c. social structure d. social process

Q: Which of the following issues has been raised regarding the validity of social control theory? a. Delinquency may lead to weakened social bonds, not vice versa. b. Social control theory has never been empirically tested. c. Social control theory applies primarily to lower-class youth and does not explain the criminal behavior of middle- and upper-class youth. d. Social control theory relies too heavily on social relationships that are difficult to measure.

Q: Travis Hirschi tested the principal hypotheses of social control theory. While evidence was strong and supportive, what is the most controversial aspect of Hirschi's conclusions? a. Youths who are strongly attached to parents were less likely to commit crime. b. Youths who were involved in conventional activities were less likely to engage in criminal behavior. c. Youths who maintained weak, distant relationships with people tended toward delinquency. d. Any form of social attachment is beneficial, even to deviant peers and parents.

Q: Travis Hirschi states that the social bonds a person maintains with society are divided into four main elements. Which of the following is notone of these elements? a. Attachment b. Commitment c. Affection d. Involvement

Q: Do criminals really neutralize? What does Topalli's research on street criminals indicate? a. Street criminals frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding persons. b. Street criminals do not experience guilt that requires neutralization. c. Street criminals experience guilt and shame that require neutralization. d. Street criminals are often embarrassed about showing pride in their criminal accomplishments.

Q: Criminals sometimes neutralize wrongdoings by "appealing to higher loyalties." Which of the following would be an example of that technique? a. Vandalizing the home of a disliked neighbor b. Attacking someone who is arguing with a friend c. Stealing from a large department store that "has plenty of money" d. Blaming the police for being unfair

Q: Criminals sometimes neutralize wrongdoings by maintaining that the crime victim "had it coming." This is an example of which technique of neutralization? a. Denial of injury b. Denial of the victim c. Appeal to higher loyalties d. Denial of responsibility

Q: Neutralization theory points out that ______. a. criminal behavior is learned in much the same way that conformity is learned b. even the most committed criminals and delinquents are not involved in criminality all the time c. criminality is a product of weak self-concept and poor self-esteem d. law is differentially applied, benefiting those who hold economic and social power and penalizing the powerless

Q: Which of the following is nota criticism of differential association theory? a. Differential association theory fails to account for the origin of criminal definitions. b. Differential association theory assumes criminal and delinquent acts to be rational and systematic. c. Differential association theory can account for isolated, psychopathic killing. d. Differential association theory ignores spontaneous acts of violence.

Q: The process of _____ refers to moving in and out of delinquency or shifting between conventional and deviant values. a. transfer b. waft c. drift d. sway

Q: Which of the following research findings supports the core principles of differential association theory? a. Criminal and delinquent acts are rational and systematic. b. Differential association accounts for spontaneous acts of violence. c. Differential association theory involves circular reasoning. d. Crime appears to be intergenerational.

Q: Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory states that ______. a. criminal behavior is a product of impaired social bonds b. criminal behavior is learned like any other behavior c. criminal behavior is a function of educational inequality within the lower class d. criminal behavior is a function of media exposure

Q: Which of the following is not one of the major principles of differential association? a. Criminal behavior is learned. b. Learning criminal behavior involves assimilating techniques. c. Differential associations may vary in meaning, reliability, and intention. d. A person becomes a criminal when he or she perceives more favorable than unfavorable consequences to violating the law.

Q: Religion and belief impact criminal behavior. Even children in high crime areas are better able to resist drug use if they ______. a. attend self-esteem building programs b. attend religious services c. have religious beliefs d. have parents with religious beliefs

Q: When examining the relationship between delinquent peers and fear of punishment, ____ delinquent peers may outweigh the fear of punishment. a. loyalty to b. fear of c. hostility from d. skills learned from

Q: According to the author, which of the following is accurate regarding why troubled kids choose delinquent peers? a. Troubled kids do so because they are not involved in after-school activities. b. Troubled kids do so because they fail to understand truancy and delinquency laws. c. Troubled kids do so out of necessity rather than desire. d. Troubled kids are biologically drawn or attracted to troublemakers.

Q: Children who fail in school offend more frequently than those who graduate. According to research on national dropout rates, which of the following group sets has "little more than a fifty"fifty chance" of graduating high school? a. White Americans and Italian Americans b. Hispanic Americans and African Americans c. Asian Americans and Italian Americans d. Native Americans and white Americans

Q: Adolescents who do not receive affection from their parents during childhood are ______. a. more likely to be depressed and suicidal as they mature b. more likely to use illicit drugs and be more aggressive as they mature c. more likely to suffer mental impairment as they mature d. more likely to engage in violent crime as they mature

Q: All of the following family factors are associated with delinquency except______.a. inconsistent discipline b. poor parental supervisionc. noncoercive parenting d. drug abusing parents

Q: _________ refers to a style of parenting with parents who are supportive and who effectively control their children in a noncoercive way.a. Parent pathology b. Low frequency parentingc. Parental efficacy d. Low coercion parenting

Q: Social reaction theory suggests that ______. a. crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken b. only males have significant potential to become criminals c. crime is a learned behavior d. people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such

Q: Social control theory suggests that ______. a. crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken b. only males have significant potential to become criminals c. crime is a learned behavior d. people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such

Q: Social process theories share one basic concept. Which is it? a. All people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, are basically good. b. All people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, have the potential to become delinquents or criminals. c. Criminal behavior is genetic, regardless of race, class, or gender. d. Lower-class people, regardless of race or gender, are more prone to commit crime.

Q: Social process theories have had a major influence on public policy initiatives over the last 60+ years. a. True b. False

Q: Restitution sentences can be used to keep offenders in the community while having to pay back society for their crimes. a. True b. False

Q: Programs based on social reaction theory attempt to shield people from criminal labels by diverting them from the system in order to avoid stigma. a. True b. False

Q: The major drawback of diversion programs is that by law they can only be applied to those under the age of 18 and for nonserious crimes.a. Trueb. False

Q: Despite the good intentions, stigma-reducing programs have not met with great success. a. True b. False

Q: The public policy effects of social process theories have been felt mainly by young offenders who are viewed as being more savable than hardened criminals. a. True b. False

Q: Labels are bestowed in a biased way, which means the poor and minority groups are more likely than others to receive negative levels. a. True b. False

Q: Labels amplify deviant behavior rather than deterring people from future criminality. a. True b. False

Q: Empirical evidence fails to support the view that labeling plays a significant role in persistent offending. a. True b. False

Q: According to research, labeling often comes after, rather than before, chronic offending. a. True b. False

Q: A major premise of social reaction theory is that the law is differentially applied, depending solely on the race of the victim. a. True b. False

Q: According to labeling theory, stigma helps lock people into deviant careers. a. True b. False

Q: Primary deviance involves resocialization into a deviant role and produces a deviance amplification effect. a. True b. False

Q: A major premise of social reaction theory is that the law is differentially constructed and applied, depending on the offenders. a. True b. False

Q: Research indicates that people who are labeled with one positive trait are assumed to have other positive traits. a. True b. False

Q: Research affirms Hirschi's contention that delinquents are detached loners whose bonds to friends have been broken.a. Trueb. False

Q: The stronger a person's commitment to conventional institutions, individuals, and processes, the less likely they are to commit crime. a. True b. False

Q: According to learning theories, even corporate executives may be exposed to procriminal definitions and learn to neutralize moral constraints. a. True b. False

Q: Sutherland's research on crime led him to dispute the notion that crime was a function of the inherent inadequacy of people in the lower classes. a. True b. False

Q: Differential association theory holds that people learn criminal attitudes and behavior during their adolescence from close, trusted friends or relatives. a. True b. False

Q: Religious participation seems to be a more significant inhibitor of crime than merely having religious beliefs and values. a. True b. False

Q: The delinquent peer-crime relationship does not apply to popular kids because they are too busy to commit crime. a. True b. False

Q: The totality of research on the effect of dropping out of high school indicates one facthigh school dropouts face a significant chance of entering a criminal career. a. True b. False

Q: According to the U.S. Department of Education, minority students, especially boys, face much harsher discipline in public schools than other students. a. True b. False

Q: The correlation between crime perpetration and poor education is well established. Due to national dropout rates increasing by nearly 25 percent over the last seven years, criminologists predict an epic increase in criminal activity over the next decade. a. True b. False

Q: The family"crime relationship is significant across racial, ethnic, and gender lines. a. True b. False

Q: Walter Miller identified the unique conduct norms (focal concerns) that help define lower-class culture. Identify and use Miller's focal concerns to explain how cultural deviance theory combines the effects of social disorganization and strain theories.

Q: Robert Agnew suggests that criminality is the direct result of negative affective states. Identify Agnew's negative affective states and explain how they lead to criminality.

Q: In his theory of anomie, sociologist Robert Merton applied the sociological concepts first identified by Emile Durkheim to criminology. Discuss the foundations of Merton's anomie theory and the social adaptations found within this strain theory.

Q: According to strain theorists, what is strain, what causes strain, and how does strain lead to crime?

Q: Discuss how collective efficacy and community cohesion are associated. Include in your discussion the three types of collective efficacy and how collective efficacy is associated with levels of crime in a neighborhood.

Q: Primary elements of the social ecology school include community disorder, community fear, and siege mentality. Explain how these elements are associated.

Q: Social disorganization theorists, Shaw and McKay focus on transitional neighborhoods as "concentric zones" of crime. Discuss this theory and how they applied their theory to the city of Chicago.

Q: Social disorganization theory links crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics. Identify and discuss these characteristics.

Q: According to social structure theory, the key to understanding the root cause of crime can be found in the nation's socioeconomic makeup. Explain what is meant by this statement.

Q: There are three separate yet overlapping branches within the social structure perspectivesocial disorganization theory, strain theory, and cultural deviance theory. Briefly discuss the main focuses of each of these theories.

Q: Because of differential opportunities presented to youth, disadvantaged young people are likely to join one of three types of gangs; the gangs which develop because youth are double failures, both unable to gain legitimate means and unwilling to do so through illegal means, are called _____________ gangs.

Q: Because of differential opportunities presented to youth, disadvantaged young people are likely to join one of three types of gangs; the gangs which develop in communities unable to provide either legitimate or illegitimate opportunities are called ____________ gangs.

Q: As a result of status frustration, Cohen found that many youth join gangs and engage in behavior with three distinctive characteristics; these include behaviors that are malicious, negativistic, and ___________________.

Q: Albert Cohen, in his classic 1955 book, articulated the theory of _________________, depicting the socialization of lower-class youth in society.

Q: According to sociologist Walter Miller, clinging to lower-class _________________, such as toughness and fate, promotes illegal or violent behavior.

Q: _____________________ refers to the process whereby values, beliefs, and traditions are handed down from one generation to the next.

Q: Messner and Rosenfeld's concept of the _______________, is defined by the goal of accumulating material goods and wealth through individual competition.

Q: Under Merton's Social Adaptations of crime, ___________ occurs when individuals gain pleasure from practicing traditional ceremonies, regardless of whether they have a real purpose or goal.

Q: Under Merton's Social Adaptations of crime, __________ occurs when individuals embrace conventional social goals and also have the means to attain them.

Q: Sociologist Robert Merton applied the sociological concepts first identified by Durkheim to criminology in his theory of ______________.

Q: The most important wielder of informal social control is the ______.

Q: The _________________ school associates community deterioration and economic decline with crime rates.

Q: Social control exerted by cohesive communities and based on mutual trust is known as _____.

Q: Shaw and McKay's research on __________________ theory found that crime was the highest in Zone I and Zone II, typically the areas of transition within the city.

Q: An area undergoing a shift in population and structure, usually from middle-class residential to lower-class mixed-use is known as a _____.

Q: _____________ theory holds that crime occurs when members of the lower class experience anger and frustration over their inability to achieve success.

Q: A set of values, beliefs, and traditions known as a/an ___________________ are unique to a particular social class or group within a larger society.

Q: According to ______________, the root cause of crime can be traced directly to the socioeconomic disadvantages that have become embedded in American society.

Q: People grouped according to economic or social class who are characterized by the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige are referred to as a __________________.

Q: Keith, Mike, and Paul continuously find themselves making poor decisions that lead to law breaking behaviors and suspensions from school. Since they are lower class, Cloward and Ohlin would argue that the boys have limited means to achieving their goals. This in turn leads to their poor decision making. The theory which best describes this situation is ______. a. differential opportunity b. reaction formation c. differential formation d. anomie

Q: Keith, Mike, and Paul feel that they are good at many things but the standards at which they are judged successful or unsuccessful are unfair. The especially feel this way in school from their teachers and coaches. They are most likely being majored using ______. a. lower-class measuring rod b. middle-class measuring rod c. upper-class measuring rod d. social class measuring rod