Q&A Hero

Q: In the seventeenth century, Archbishop James Ussher of Ireland used the Bible to calculate that the Earth was created in 4004 b.c.e. Imagine you could take Archbishop Ussher to Niagara Falls. Although Niagara Falls is located on the border between the United States and Canada today, it was located several kilometers to the north at the Niagara Escarpment and is eroding southward. Let's assume the rate of erosion is 50 cm/yr. Assuming the distance from the Niagara Escarpment to Niagara Falls is 11 km, use the equation Rate = Distance/Time to calculate how long it would have taken to erode from the Escarpment to the current location of the falls. How would this calculation compare with Archbishop Ussher's assessment of the age of the Earth?

Q: Compare and contrast the thickness of the material that makes up ocean basins and continents and how they sit on the mantle. (Which one sits higher on the mantle and why?)

Q: On May 18, 1980, the volcano Mount St. Helens in Washington State erupted, devastating life and landscape for over 200 mi2 through ash falls, lahars, and other pyroclastic deposits. Explain how the eruption (part of the geosphere) affected the atmosphere and hydrosphere.

Q: Changes in one part of the Earth system can influence processes in other parts of the system. Sometimes these changes can be minor, but sometimes they can be severe. How might a change in the hydrosphere affect the geosphere and the biosphere?

Q: Explain the difference between a scientific hypothesis and a scientific theory.

Q: What is a scientific theory? Explain how a scientific theory differs from the way most nonscientists use the word theory in everyday language.

Q: In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the doctrine of catastrophism was used to describe how the Earth had been shaped quickly by fast, violent catastrophes and was therefore very young. In the eighteenth century, James Hutton developed the principle of uniformitarianism, which stated that the Earth was shaped by small, gradual changes occurring over a long period of time, making the Earth much older. Which view (if either) is correct, and why?

Q: Explain how an increasing population and urban sprawl make people more vulnerable to natural disasters. Give three reasons.

Q: Match the rock type with the correct definition. 1. Igneous 2. Sedimentary 3. Metamorphic A) Rocks that form from the crystallization of molten material B) Rocks that form when a pre-existing rock is altered due to heat and pressure C) Rocks that form from pre-existing materials going through lithification

Q: Match the collection of rocks below into the three categories of rocks. 1. Igneous rocks 2. Sedimentary rocks 3. Metamorphic rocks A) Slate, schist, quartzite, phyllite B) Granite, gabbro, rhyolite, basalt C) Limestone, conglomerate, arkose, dolomite

Q: Match the events leading up to the formation of the early Earth in order. 1. First 2. Second 3. Third 4. Fourth A) Formation of proto-planets. B) Formation of solar nebula. C) Contraction of interstellar materials. D) Nuclear fission lights up Sun.

Q: Match the sphere of the Earth with the correct definition. 1. Hydrosphere 2. Biosphere 3. Atmosphere 4. Geosphere A) Gaseous envelope around the planet B) The solid Earth C) Water portion of the planet D) All life on the planet

Q: Match the steps of the scientific method with the appropriate order from first to last. 1. First 2. Second 3. Third 4. Fourth 5. Fifth 6. Sixth A) Observations and experiments are developed to test the hypothesis. B) Data is collected that relates to the question. C) Hypotheses are rejected, modified, or accepted. D) Results are shared with the scientific community. E) A question is proposed about the natural world. F) Questions are posed and a hypothesis is developed.

Q: External processes driven by solar energy can create the materials necessary for sedimentary rocks.

Q: Crystallization of molten rock can produce metamorphic rocks.

Q: Both energy and matter will flow in and out of an open system.

Q: A hypothesis can never be changed or modified.

Q: Before a hypothesis can become an accepted part of scientific knowledge, it must pass objective testing and analysis.

Q: Geologic hazards are natural processes.

Q: ________ is the concept that describes how the Earth was shaped by sudden, violent events over a short period of time. A) Uniformitarianism B) Catastrophism C) Neptunism D) Differentiation

Q: A ________ is the interior of a continental mass that has been relatively undisturbed for the last 600 million years. A) mountain belt B) margin C) craton D) shield

Q: Which of these statements best describes the lithosphere? A) The lithosphere is the layer in the interior of the Earth that is just below the crust. B) The lithosphere is composed of the crust and the rigid part of the upper mantle. C) The lithosphere is a low-density part of the upper mantle. D) The lithosphere consists solely of the crust.

Q: The interior of the Earth is divided into roughly spherical layers of differing ________. A) density B) temperature C) pressure D) magma

Q: What is the relationship between the four spheres of Earth? A) The four spheres operate independently from each other. B) The geosphere and the hydrosphere overlap, but the atmosphere and biosphere operate independently. C) The four spheres overlap and interact with each other. D) The biosphere and hydrosphere interact with each other, whereas the geosphere and atmosphere are part of a separate system.

Q: The majority of water in the hydrosphere is found in which feature? A) Rivers B) Oceans C) Water vapor D) Glaciers

Q: Archbishop James Ussher used the Bible to construct a chronology to date the creation of the Earth to ________. A) 1776 A.D B) 46,000 B.C.E C) 79 A.D D) 4004 B.C.E

Q: ________ describes Earth's origins and its development through time. A) Natural hazards B) Physical geology C) Historical geology D) Uniformitarianism

Q: Along which features might one expect to see a deep-ocean trench? A) Abyssal plains B) Mountain ranges C) Oceanic ridges D) Seamounts

Q: Which physical feature represents the true transition from the continent to the ocean basin? A) The shoreline B) The continental shelf C) The continental slope D) The continental rise E) The deep-ocean floor

Q: The ________ is a flooded margin of the continent. A) continental shelf B) deep-ocean floor C) continental slope D) continental rise

Q: Which of the following rocks will be most buoyant on the Earth's mantle? Rock A: Density 1.4 g/cm3 Rock B: Density 5.6 g/cm3 Rock C: Density 5.1 g/cm3 Rock D: Density 2.7 g/cm3 A) Rock A B) Rock B C) Rock C D) Rock D

Q: The rock that makes up ocean basins has a density of ________ and is made of ________. A) 1.9 g/cm3; sandstone B) 4.5 g/cm3; gneiss C) 3.0 g/cm3; basalt D) 2.7 g/cm3; granite

Q: Continents have a density of ________ and are made of ________ rock. A) 1.9 g/cm3; sandstone B) 4.5 g/cm3; gneiss C) 3.0 g/cm3; basalt D) 2.7 g/cm3; granite

Q: A ________ is a part of the craton that is covered by a thin covering of sedimentary rocks. A) shield B) continental shelf C) platform D) plateau

Q: If the age of a mountain range is inversely proportional to its height, in what two regions are the youngest mountain ranges found today? A) The circum-Atlantic belt and southern Europe/Asia B) Western South America and the Appalachians of North America C) The circum-Pacific belt and southern Europe/Asia D) Scandinavia and Eastern Africa

Q: The geologic rock cycle presents an orderly transition from igneous to sedimentary to metamorphic rocks. However, there are also some alternative transitions that bypass part of the rock cycle. Which of the following is the best example of one of those bypasses? A) Igneous rocks are weathered and eroded to become sediments. B) Metamorphic rocks are melted to become magma. C) Magma cools and crystallizes to form igneous rocks. D) Sedimentary rocks are weathered into sediments, which become lithified into sedimentary rocks.

Q: Which characteristics are used to determine the processes that created a rock? A) Heat and pressure B) Texture and composition C) Size and shape D) Color and texture

Q: What is the definition of lithification? A) The breakdown of materials due to exposure to the elements B) The process by which sediments are made into rock C) The transportation of sediments from their place of origin D) The crystallization of minerals through cooling

Q: What is the texture of a rock? A) How the rock feels to the touch B) The composition of minerals that make up the rock C) The shape of the rock D) The size, shape, and/or arrangement of minerals in a rock

Q: The ________ is a layer of liquid nickel and iron believed to be responsible for generating the Earth's magnetic field. A) Crust B) Mantle C) Outer Core D) Inner Core

Q: What is the asthenosphere? A) A portion of the atmosphere that blocks UV radiation B) A soft, low-velocity layer in the upper mantle C) The transition zone between the mantle and the outer core D) The portion of the hydrologic cycle that describes how plants contribute their respiration

Q: Which layer of the Earth is the thickest? A) Crust B) Mantle C) Outer core D) Inner core

Q: Which layer of the Earth is the thinnest? A) Crust B) Mantle C) Outer Core D) Inner Core

Q: If the temperature in the Earth generally increases with depth, how is it possible that the inner core is a solid? A) Temperatures increase to a certain point before leveling off below the melting point of the core. B) The pressures in the core are immense and keep it in a solid state in spite of the temperature. C) Earth's interior does not reach temperatures high enough to melt the material of the inner core. D) The inner core is shedding the heat so quickly that melting does not have time to occur.

Q: A research team is studying the velocity of seismic waves in various types of rock. Using explosives, they create small explosions to study how fast the energy waves will travel. Using the velocity data below, infer which rocks are higher in density and which are lower in density. Which rock or rocks have the highest density? Rock A: 7 km/s Rock B: 5.9 km/s Rock C: 7.2 km/s Rock D: 6.1 km/s Rock E: 6.25 km/s A) Rock C B) Rocks B & D C) Rocks B, D, & E D) Rocks A & C

Q: What provides us with the most information about the interior of the Earth? A) Borehole data B) Erupted materials C) Satellite imagery D) Seismic energy waves

Q: What property of the crust allowed it to form as the exterior of Earth? A) Magma at the surface cooled and crystallized before anything in the interior. B) Materials that make up the crust are less dense and rose to the top. C) Churning and upheaval in the interior thrust crustal rocks toward the surface. D) Meteorites impacting Earth deposited this material at the surface.

Q: Because the early Earth was a large sphere of magma, the earliest rocks that formed here were recycled into the mantle long ago. What is the age of the oldest radiometrically dated rocks discovered on the planet? (Or, what is the age of the oldest remaining rocks on Earth?) A) 6,000 years old B) 4.6 million years old C) 4 billion years old D) 4.6 billion years old

Q: What is the definition of planetarydifferentiation? A) Separation of materials based on density B) Categorization based on chemical formulas C) Mixing of materials to produce a new compound D) Divisions of planets based on constituent materials

Q: Which of the following Earth materials can be used to make interpretations about the nature and composition of the interior of the Earth? A) Meteorites B) Diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes C) Slivers of crustal and mantle rocks exposed at the surface D) Meteorites, kimberlite pipes, and slivers of crustal and mantle rocks E) Groundwater and vapors in geothermal systems

Q: What caused our solar nebula to contract and spin, eventually creating the planets? A) Gravitational interactions between particles B) Gravitational attraction from black holes C) Nuclear fusion joining atomic particles D) Solar winds from nearby stars

Q: The debris from the Big Bang was made almost entirely of ________. A) oxygen and silicon B) hydrogen and helium C) iron and nickel D) carbon and nitrogen

Q: What is the scientifically accepted age of the formation of the universe? A) 4.6 billion years B) 10 billion years C) 13.7 billion years D) 8.7 billion years

Q: Which of the four spheres of Earth is the most extensive? A) Geosphere B) Atmosphere C) Hydrosphere D) Biosphere

Q: Which of the following is not one of the roles of the atmosphere? A) Energy exchanges between the surface and outer space, creating weather and climate B) Lessening the effects of weathering on the geosphere C) Protection from ultraviolet radiation and the intensity of the Sun D) Providing air for respiratory processes in the biosphere

Q: What percentage of the Earth is covered by oceans? A) 50% B) 17% C) 80% D) 71%

Q: Science uses observations of phenomena in order to make interpretations. Which of the following is an observation? A) A fold is visible in an outcrop. B) The fold was created by pressure. C) Pressure was applied slowly to fold the rock. D) Heat was applied to soften the rock.

Q: Which of the following is the definition of a scientific theory? A) The gathering of data through observations B) A tentative explanation used to explain observed activities C) A well-tested and widely accepted view that explains observable facts D) An educated guess

Q: Which of the following is the definition for a scientific hypothesis? A) The gathering of data through observations B) A tentative explanation used to explain observed activities C) A well-tested and widely accepted view that explains observable facts D) An educated guess

Q: ________ was an important eighteenth-century geologist who developed the concept of Uniformitarianism to explain the slow, steady changes responsible for shaping the Earth. A) Charles Lyell B) Isaac Newton C) James Hutton D) Charles Darwin

Q: What is the accepted age of the Earth? A) 10,000 years B) 1 million years C) 4.6 million years D) 4.6 billion years

Q: The principle of ________ states that the physical, chemical, and biological processes at work shaping the Earth today have also operated in the geologic past. A) catastrophism B) plate tectonics C) plutonism D) Uniformitarianism

Q: Which of the following is not a geologic hazard? A) Use of poor construction materials resulting in a cracked foundation B) Volcanic eruptions sending lava flows toward a city C) Deforestation on a floodplain increasing the severity of river floods D) Climate change leading to sea-level rise

Q: Which culture recorded the earliest writings about topics such as fossils, earthquakes, and gemstones? A) Roman Empire B) Renaissance Europe C) Ancient China D) Ancient Greece

Q: Which of the following is a natural disaster? A) A hurricane forming in the ocean B) A landslide striking a city C) A volcano erupting on an uninhabited island D) An earthquake occurring in the desert