Q&A Hero

Q: Problems of observer bias can arise in the context of a case study because A. extraneous variables are often uncontrolled. B. the nomothetic approach is especially prone to observer bias. C. case studies typically involve unobtrusive observation. D. the researcher is often both observer and participant.

Q: The fundamental characteristic of case studies is A. the high degree of scientific control. B. they contribute important testimonial evidence. C. they are nomothetic approaches to science. D. they lack a high degree of scientific control.

Q: The relationship of the case study method to other research methods of investigation can best be described as A. very similar to experimental approaches. B. antagonistic to more controlled methods. C. interrelated with and complementary to other methods. D. most related to research methods for confirmatory studies.

Q: Which of the following is an advantage of the case study method? A. Case studies are a source of ideas and hypotheses about behavior. B. Case studies are a source of definitive evidence in support of theoretical assumptions. C. Case studies provide cause-and-effect inferences for clinical treatments. D. Case studies complement the idiographic study of behavior.

Q: Case studies have been used successfully to study individuals with brain disorders and individuals with exceptional memory abilities. These studies illustrate the use of the case study method to A. apply the nomothetic approach. B. test a clinical innovation. C. provide conclusive evidence for a particular theory. D. study rare phenomena.

Q: In the nomothetic approach to the study of psychology, researchers generally conduct A. intensive studies of an individual to describe the way people behave in general. B. intensive studies of an individual to describe the unique aspects of individuals. C. studies of many individuals and use their average behavior to describe the unique aspects of individuals. D. studies of many individuals and use their average behavior to describe how people behave in general.

Q: The task confronting clinical psychologists can be described as trying to predict "what any one person will do." Actuarial predictions and group norms can be useful, but the clinician's task also illustrates the need for A. idiographic research. B. psychoanalytic research. C. nomothetic research. D. spiritual research.

Q: Idiographic research, as represented by the case study method, has the potential to reveal A. causal mechanisms underlying behavior. B. contradictory effects in well-controlled treatment studies. C. nuances and subtleties of individual behavior. D. definitive evidence for the effectiveness of a particular treatment.

Q: The major difficulty with the case study method as a basis for drawing cause-and-effect conclusions is that A. coding of the results cannot be done reliably and validly. B. the simultaneous use of several treatments and failure to control extraneous variables prevent causal inference. C. excessive constraints on the external validity of the case study prevent causal inference. D. biases of the researcher must dominate the interpretation of the results.

Q: Researchers are often unable to control extraneous variables when they use the case study method. This poor degree of control makes it difficult to use the case study method to A. draw cause-and-effect conclusions about behavior. B. consider alternative theoretical explanations of behavior. C. develop descriptions of behavior. D. develop predictions of behavior.

Q: The most serious disadvantage of the case study method, because of internal validity issues, is the A. possible problem of generalizing from a single individual. B. limitation of information based on self-reports. C. difficulty of making causal inferences regarding the effect of treatment. D. possible problem of observer bias affecting the interpretation of the outcome.

Q: Which of the following characteristics is present in a typical case study? A. extraneous variables are controlled B. several different treatments are often applied simultaneously C. treatment variables are often varied systematically D. all of these

Q: A woman sought treatment for her symptoms of depression and anxiety. The psychologist, after checking his references for the best treatment given her symptoms, began twice-a-week cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy. By the end of eight weeks, she reported that she was much better, and had only occasional symptoms of depression and anxiety, which she considered to be normal. The psychologist wrote a report describing the results of his study, stating that her improvement offers conclusive support for the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy. Do you think the psychologist's conclusions are correct? Why or why not?

Q: Suppose the following data were observed for an individual who sought treatment for kleptomania. Using a single-case experiment, the psychologist used "covert sensitization" to treat the stealing behavior across a number of different situations (e.g., stealing at the grocery store, drug store, discount store). Covert sensitization was applied systematically to each situation. The psychologist concluded that the treatment was very effective for reducing kleptomania. As shown in the following graphs, an initial baseline period was conducted for each of three situations. The session in which covert sensitization was implemented is indicated with each situation (session 3, 6, or 9). The dependent variable is the number of shoplifted items. What type of research design was used in this study? [Be specific.]

Q: (p. 295, 297) Suppose the following data were observed for an individual who sought treatment for kleptomania. Using a single-case experiment, the psychologist used "covert sensitization" to treat the stealing behavior across a number of different situations (e.g., stealing at the grocery store, drug store, discount store). Covert sensitization was applied systematically to each situation. The psychologist concluded that the treatment was very effective for reducing kleptomania. As shown in the following graphs, an initial baseline period was conducted for each of three situations. The session in which covert sensitization was implemented is indicated with each situation (session 3, 6, or 9). The dependent variable is the number of shoplifted items. What is your conclusion about the effectiveness of treatment? Explain your answer.

Q: A cognitive psychologist did an intensive descriptive study of a person who had suffered an unusual brain injury. Which of the following methods did the psychologist most likely use? A. baseline method B. case study method C. idiogram method D. unipolar method

Q: What two methodological problems dealing with the measurement of baselines apply to all single-case experimental designs?

Q: In a complex factorial design described as a 2 4, there are A. one independent variable with two levels and one independent variable with four levels. B. two independent variables, each with four levels. C. four independent variables, each with two levels. D. two independent variables and four dependent variables.

Q: The number of conditions in a complex design described as a 2 3 is A. two. B. three. C. five. D. six.

Q: Identify two advantages and two disadvantages of the case study method.

Q: (p. 290, 297-299) Describe an advantage and a disadvantage of single-case experimental designs relative to multiple-groups designs.

Q: Describe the common features that are present in both ABAB and multiple-baseline experimental designs.

Q: (p. 292-294, 297) Identify a methodological problem specific to the ABAB design and a methodological problem specific to the multiple-baseline designs.

Q: A researcher conducts a study to determine if the variable of test anxiety influences performance on two types of GRE tests, the verbal and quantitative tests. He uses a questionnaire to assess individuals' test anxiety and classifies participants as high test anxious (n = 40) or low test anxious (n = 40). He is also interested in knowing whether high or low test-anxious individuals' performance is different for the computerized version of the two tests compared to the paper-and-pencil version of the tests. Within each anxiety group, he randomly assigns participants to either the computer version or the paper version of the GRE tests. Participants then complete both the verbal and quantitative tests of the GRE in the test version they've been assigned (computer or paper). Thus, each participant has two scores, a Verbal score and a Quantitative score. Assume the following results were observed for the mean Verbal scores (we'll ignore Quantitative scores): Based on these findings, the researcher claims that Test Version, computer vs. paper, does not affect individuals' average performance. What information is the researcher using to make this claim? Is this claim justified?

Q: (p. 244-245, 247) A researcher was interested in the effects of arousal and personality on individuals' GRE test performance. The personality variable he examined was individuals' level of introversion-extraversion. Based on questionnaire responses, each participant was classified as an "extravert" or an "introvert." The researcher manipulated arousal level by giving caffeine to participants prior to administering a practice GRE test. Participants were randomly assigned to a high-caffeine condition, a medium-caffeine condition, or the no-caffeine condition. All participants then completed a version of the quantitative portion of the GRE. Suppose the researcher observed the following means for each group:

Q: A researcher was interested in the effects of arousal and personality on individuals' GRE test performance. The personality variable he examined was individuals' level of introversion-extraversion. Based on questionnaire responses, each participant was classified as an "extravert" or an "introvert." The researcher manipulated arousal level by giving caffeine to participants prior to administering a practice GRE test. Participants were randomly assigned to a high-caffeine condition, a medium-caffeine condition, or the no-caffeine condition. All participants then completed a version of the quantitative portion of the GRE. Suppose the researcher observed the following means for each group: Explain whether the following two statements are True or False based on the evidence in this experiment. (1) We can predict individuals' quantitative GRE score if we know whether they are introverts or extraverts. (2) Individuals' level of introversion or extraversion causes different performance on the quantitative GRE test. Both statements are False. We cannot predict the GRE scores based on introversion-extraversion because scores are influenced by both the personality variable and level of arousal (i.e., an interaction effect). We would need both pieces of information to predict the GRE score. The second statement is false because level of introversion or extraversion is a natural groups variable, and we cannot make causal statements based on natural groups variables. There are many additional ways in which people who are introverted or extraverted may differ that may affect test performance.

Q: (p. 244-245, 247) A researcher examined whether interrogators who expect a suspect to be guilty, rather than innocent, use more persuasive interrogation techniques. The researcher created a laboratory situation in which students were randomly assigned to actually commit a crime or not commit a crime by following a set of instructions given to them. This is referred to as "Suspect Status." Before student interrogators interviewed a suspect, they were randomly assigned to conditions that led them to believe the suspect was guilty or innocent of the crime. This is referred to as "Interrogator Expectation." Independent observers rated the effort used by interrogators to obtain a confession using a 1-10 rating scale (higher scores indicate greater effort). Suppose the researcher observed the following means for each group:

Q: A researcher examined whether interrogators who expect a suspect to be guilty, rather than innocent, use more persuasive interrogation techniques. The researcher created a laboratory situation in which students were randomly assigned to actually commit a crime or not commit a crime by following a set of instructions given to them. This is referred to as "Suspect Status." Before student interrogators interviewed a suspect, they were randomly assigned to conditions that led them to believe the suspect was guilty or innocent of the crime. This is referred to as "Interrogator Expectation." Independent observers rated the effort used by interrogators to obtain a confession using a 1-10 rating scale (higher scores indicate greater effort). Suppose the researcher observed the following means for each group: Describe the effects of the independent variables in this experiment (assume any nonzero difference between means indicates a statistically significant effect).

Q: A complex design always involves A. only one independent variable. B. two or more different research designs. C. two or more independent variables. D. two or more dependent variables.

Q: A research study was done in which college students and elderly people were tested on three different cognitive tasks (spatial ability, memory, and vocabulary). Thus, six conditions were tested in the study. Which of the following best describes the study? A. quasi-experiment B. complex design C. cross-sectional survey design D. naturalistic observation

Q: When each level of one independent variable is combined with each level of a second independent variable, the combination of these two variables is called A. a complete design. B. counterbalanced combination. C. an interaction effect. D. factorial combination.

Q: A researcher examined whether people's responses to injustice depend on whether the offender in a hypothetical scenario is a male or a female, and whether the offender apologized (or not) after the offense. Participants were randomly assigned to the gender of the offender condition (female, male) and apology condition (present, absent). Participants read a hypothetical scenario in which a person (male or female) acted unjustly and the action results in severe harm. Half of the participants read that the offender apologized; the other half read the same scenario except no apology was mentioned. Participants then rated the extent to which they would forgive the offender using a 0 (no forgiveness) to 9 (complete forgiveness) rating scale. The researcher predicted that participants' forgiveness would be greater following an apology compared to the apology-absent condition. The researcher also predicted that the gender of the offender would have no effect on forgiveness. The researcher observed the following means: Did the results support the researcher's predictions? Explain why or why not.

Q: (p. 244-245, 247) A researcher examined whether people's responses to injustice depend on whether the offender in a hypothetical scenario is a male or a female, and whether the offender apologized (or not) after the offense. Participants were randomly assigned to the gender of the offender condition (female, male) and apology condition (present, absent). Participants read a hypothetical scenario in which a person (male or female) acted unjustly and the action results in severe harm. Half of the participants read that the offender apologized; the other half read the same scenario except no apology was mentioned. Participants then rated the extent to which they would forgive the offender using a 0 (no forgiveness) to 9 (complete forgiveness) rating scale. The researcher predicted that participants' forgiveness would be greater following an apology compared to the apology-absent condition. The researcher also predicted that the gender of the offender would have no effect on forgiveness.

Q: (p. 247, 250) Distinguish between a main effect and an interaction effect in a complex design.

Q: (p. 257, 259-260) Briefly describe the analysis that are done to interpret the results of complex designs when an interaction effect is present and when an interaction effect is not present.

Q: Explain the role of an interaction effect in a complex design in establishing the external validity of each independent variable entering into the interaction effect. Be sure to describe what happens to external validity both when an interaction effect is and is not present. Finally, explain why you might be cautious in using interaction effects to establish the external validity of the effect of an independent variable.

Q: Interaction effects can play a special role in the natural groups design to help break the confoundings inherent in individual difference (subject) variables. Describe this role of interaction effects using the study comparing memory of musicians and nonmusicians described in the text.

Q: Use this graph to answer the question that follow:

Q: (p. 250, 259-260) Use this graph to answer the question that follow: In order to explain the interaction effect present in these data, describe two simple main effects.

Q: (p. 244, 247) A researcher is interested in studying the effectiveness of two different learning strategies (A and B), and whether the effects of the learning strategies differ for easy material compared to difficult material. The researcher has 80 participants available. The dependent variable is percentage correct on tests of the material. The researcher hypothesizes that (1) participants will always have higher test scores for easy compared to difficult material, and (2) learning strategy B will be better than learning strategy A for difficult material, but the strategies will produce little difference in test results for easy material.

Q: An interaction effect is likely to be uninterpretable when this problem in measurement occurs: A. simple main effect B. ceiling or floor effect C. nonparallel lines D. highly reliable measurement of the dependent variable

Q: A researcher conducts a study in which participants must detect stimuli on a computer screen. When they see a white dot on the screen they respond by clicking a mouse. Scores represent how many correct responses participants make (range: 0 - 10). The two independent variables are speed of the presentation (250 msec, 1000 msec) and brightness of the background (dark, light). Speed of presentation is a repeated measures variable, and brightness of the background is a random groups variable. Suppose the following mean were observed. What should the researcher conclude? A. The two independent variables are not relevant variables in this experiment. B. The main effect of the brightness variable is larger than the main effect of the speed of presentation variable. C. The brightness variable should have been manipulated as a natural groups variable. D. The interaction may be uninterpretable due to a possible floor effect.

Q: The natural groups design is effective for establishing A. correlations between individuals' characteristics and their performance on a task. B. floor effects for relating individuals' characteristics and their performance on a task. C. causal inferences between individuals' characteristics and their performance on a task. D. spurious relationships between individuals' characteristics and their performance on a task.

Q: There are several steps an investigator must take in carrying out the general procedure for drawing causal inferences based on the natural groups design. Which of the following is not one of the steps an investigator must take? A. Develop a theory explaining why a difference should occur between groups differentiated on the basis of an individual differences variable. B. Select an independent variable that can be manipulated and that should influence the likelihood that the theoretical process will occur. C. Select a second individual differences variable that would be expected to interact with the primary individual differences variable. D. Strive to produce an interaction effect between a manipulated independent variable and the primary individual differences variable.

Q: A potential solution to the problem of drawing causal inferences based on the natural groups design is to use a complex design involving a natural groups design for an individual differences variable along with a manipulated independent variable. An important key to this potential solution is to A. obtain a main effect of the individual differences variable but not of the manipulated independent variable. B. obtain a main effect of the manipulated independent variable but not of the individual differences variable. C. obtain main effects of both the individual differences variable and the manipulated independent variable. D. obtain an interaction effect of the individual differences variable and the manipulated independent variable.

Q: When an independent variable such as task difficulty has been shown to interact with a second independent variable such as age, the generality (i.e., ability to generalize the findings) of the effect of the task difficulty variable is A. complete. B. unaffected. C. limited. D. increased.

Q: The limits of the external validity of the effects of each of the two independent variables in a complex design are specified when A. there is no interaction effect of the two variables and neither variable produces a main effect. B. there is no interaction effect of the two variables but significant main effects for both variables. C. there is no interaction effect of the two variables and one independent variable has a main effect but the other variable does not. D. there is an interaction effect of the two variables and main effects of the variables may or may not be present.

Q: Suppose an independent variable does not have any effect on the dependent variable in a single-factor experiment. Which of the following is one of the reasons for being cautious about saying that the independent variable is irrelevant? A. We know the independent variable could interact with another independent variable when used in a complex design. B. We can assume this independent variable would not have an effect if different levels of the variable had been tested. C. We know that experiments in which an independent variable does not have an effect are inherently uninterpretable. D. We know that single-factor experiments cannot be used to identify relevant independent variables.

Q: In a 2 2 complex design, one independent variable was shown not to have a statistically significant main effect on the dependent variable. Based on this, we can state that A. the independent variable has external validity over the levels of the second independent variable. B. it is not a relevant independent variable. C. for the variable to be considered relevant in this experiment, it must interact with the second independent variable. D. the variable will definitely interact with the second independent variable in this experiment.

Q: A common approach for resolving contradictory findings in research literature is to develop a theory for the source of different findings and A. create experimental conditions that will lead to a floor effect for one set of findings. B. examine the relationship between a natural groups variable and a dependent variable. C. manipulate independent variables in a complex design to test the theory. D. eliminate any possibility for statistical interactions among the independent variables.

Q: When no interaction effect occurs in a complex design with two independent variables, we know the effects of each independent variable can be generalized A. only across the characteristics of the participants tested in the experiment. B. only across the two independent variables included in the experiment. C. across all factors held constant in the experiment. D. beyond the conditions that were included in the experiment.

Q: A researcher designs a 2 2 2 complex design in which the first independent variable uses a random groups design, the second independent variable uses a natural groups design, and the third independent variable uses a repeated measures design. The researcher wants to have 20 participants in each independent groups condition. How many participants will she need to recruit? A. 20 B. 40 C. 80 D. 160

Q: Researchers interested in factors that influence people's performance identified an interaction effect between stress level and the difficulty of the task. Performance on easy tasks was relatively better under high stress than under low stress; performance on difficult tasks was relatively better under low stress than under high stress. The researchers further found that the interaction effect of stress and difficulty was more pronounced for men than for women. The combined effect of the stress, difficulty, and gender independent variables represents a A. triple or three-way interaction effect. B. simple main effect. C. modified main effect. D. ceiling (men) and floor (women) effect.

Q: The three potential sources of systematic variation in a complex design experiment involving two independent variables include A. two main effects and a simple comparison effect. B. two main effects and an interaction effect. C. one main effect, one interaction effect, and one error variation effect. D. one main effect, a simple main effect, and an interaction effect.

Q: The analysis plan and interpretation of the results of a complex design experiment involving two independent variables depends on A. the total number of conditions in the experiment. B. the number of statistically significant effects in the experiment. C. whether either independent variable produces a main effect or not. D. whether an interaction effect is or is not obtained in the experiment.

Q: (p. 257, 259) In order to interpret the findings of a complex design experiment, researchers A. compute an analysis of variance. B. examine the means for each condition. C. conduct simple main effects analyses when an interaction effect is present. D. all of these

Q: A researcher did an experiment testing the effects of noise on students' ability to study effectively in different environments. The design was a 3 2, with three levels of background noise and two different environments. The researcher obtained an interaction effect and decided to try to identify the source of the interaction effect by testing the effect of the noise variable separately at each level of the environment variable. Which of the following types of effects in the analysis of a complex design was the researcher testing? A. simple main effect B. main effect C. moderator effect D. comparison of two means

Q: Which of the following statements is true? A. Researchers first consider the statistical significance of main effects before considering interaction effects in a complex design. B. If an interaction effect is statistically significant, researchers then use main effects to understand the source of the interaction. C. If an interaction effect is not statistically significant, the researcher should then conduct analyses of simple main effects to determine why the interaction was not statistically significant. D. If an interaction effect is statistically significant, it is likely the researcher will discover at least one statistically significant simple main effect.

Q: The interpretation of main effects obtained in a complex design is critically dependent on whether A. an interaction effect is not present in the experiment. B. an interaction effect is present in the experiment. C. only one main effect occurs in the experiment. D. more than one main effect occurs in the experiment.

Q: Suppose the overall analysis of variance of a complex design indicates there is no interaction effect. Which of the following analyses should be done as the next step in analyzing this experiment? A. main effects B. simple main effects C. comparisons of two means D. simple interaction effects

Q: A student has conducted an experiment involving a 4 2 design. The student's initial analyses of variance indicates there was no statistically significant interaction effect in the experiment. The independent variable with four levels, however, did produce a statistically significant main effect. Which of the following analyses should the student do next to specify the source of this main effect more precisely? A. eta-squared analysis B. simple main effects C. simple interaction effects D. comparisons of two means

Q: In a 2 2 complex design experiment with a statistically significant interaction effect, the simple main effects analyses represent A. an eta-squared analysis. B. an analysis to reveal floor or ceiling effects. C. a comparison of means considered two at a time. D. the subtraction method.

Q: Complex designs enhance researchers' ability to test hypotheses derived from theories because complex designs A. require more specific operational definitions of concepts. B. make it possible to test both main effects and interaction effects. C. have higher internal validity. D. insure that the null hypotheses will be false.

Q: A student is trying to determine whether an interaction effect is present in an experiment with a 2 2 design. The data are summarized in a table. Which of the following methods should the student use to estimate whether or not an interaction effect is present? A. addition method B. subtraction method C. multiplication method D. division method

Q: In a complex design in which there are three independent variables (A, B, C) it is possible to determine A. three main effects and the three-way interaction effect of A B C. B. three main effects just the same as in three separate experiments, each one involving only one independent variable. C. three main effects, three two-way interaction effects (A B, A C, B C), and the three-way interaction effect of A B C. D. none of these

Q: (p. 250, 253) The following table shows three cell means for a 2 2 complex design. Assume that the analysis of the experiment indicates no main effect of Factor A, no main effect of Factor B, and an interaction effect between Factors A and B. What value should be placed in the missing cell for this pattern of results to be obtained? [Assume that any difference between means is significant.] A. 30 B. 40 C. 50 D. 80

Q: (p. 250, 253) In a line graph of a complex design, the dependent variable is typically represented A. on the x-axis (horizontal). B. on the y-axis (vertical). C. by multiple lines within the space of the graph. D. using multiple graphs.

Q: When a line graph is used to depict the results of a complex design, an interaction effect is indicated by A. nonparallel lines. B. parallel lines. C. lines that change direction only once. D. lines that change direction more than once.

Q: Which of the following patterns indicates that there has been no interaction effect in a complex design experiment when the results are plotted in a line graph? A. when the lines are parallel B. when the lines start out at the same point and diverge from each other C. when the lines start out apart and converge to the same point D. when the lines intersect forming a crossing pattern

Q: The best solution when differential transfer is likely in an experiment is to A. use selected orders in an incomplete repeated measures design. B. conduct an independent groups design. C. choose a different independent variable to investigate. D. use block randomization in a complete repeated measures design.

Q: Which of the following statements is false? A. Factorial combination of two independent variables, each with three conditions, would yield six experimental conditions. B. The simplest complex design experiment has one independent variable and one dependent variable. C. A 2 3 complex design experiment has two independent variables. D. A "mixed design" is when one independent variable is manipulated as an independent groups variable and a second independent variable is manipulated as a repeated measures design.

Q: Complex designs beyond the basic 2 2 design can be constructed A. only by increasing the numbers of levels of each independent variable (e.g., 3 3). B. only by increasing the numbers of independent variables but holding the levels of each at two (e.g., 2 2 2). C. either by increasing the numbers of levels of each independent variable or by increasing the numbers of independent variables or by doing both. D. none of these

Q: An experiment that is described as a 3 3 2 is one that has A. one independent variable with a total of 8 conditions. B. two independent variables, each with three levels and 18 conditions. C. two independent variables with 3 levels and two dependent variables with 2 levels. D. three independent variables, two with 3 levels and one with 2 levels.

Q: In a 2 2 design with the independent variables, Anxiety Level (Low, High) and Type of Test (Easy, Hard), which of the following would be one of the four conditions created using factorial combination? A. hard test B. low anxietyeasy test C. easy testhard test D. low anxietyhigh anxiety

Q: The overall effect of each independent variable in a complex design is called A. a main effect. B. an average effect. C. a comparison effect. D. a simple main effect.

Q: Using the data in the following table, determine the two values that represent the main effect of the Test Anxiety independent variable: A. 75 and 70 B. 80 and 65 C. 80 and 70 D. 80 and 60

Q: Which of the following effects occurs in a complex design when the effect of one independent variable differs depending on the level of a second independent variable? A. main effect B. collapsed effect C. interaction effect D. factorial effect

Q: In a complex design experiment, researchers found that younger and older people performed equally well on a memory task when they were tested in the afternoon, but the older people performed better than the younger people when they were tested in the morning. The different effect of age at the two times of day represents A. a main effect. B. an interaction effect. C. a correlational effect. D. a simple comparison effect.

Q: Which of the following statements best describes the effects that occurred in the 2 2 design outlined in the following table? The dependent variable is memory for the tasks (out of a possible ten), and you may assume that any nonzero difference is statistically significant. A. There were two main effects (one for the type of task variable and one for the depression variable) but no interaction effect of the two independent variables. B. There was a main effect of the type of task variable, no main effect of the depression variable, and an interaction effect of the two independent variables. C. There was an interaction effect of the type of task and the depression variables and a main effect of each of the two independent variables. D. There was an interaction effect of the type of task and the depression variables but no main effect of either independent variable.

Q: The following table includes the results of a 2 2 design in which one independent variable was the gender of a research confederate leading a group discussion (male or female) and the second independent variable was the outcome of the group performance (success or failure). Both variables were manipulated by the experimenter using random groups designs. The dependent variable was participants' rating of the confederate leading the discussion. There is an interaction effect in this experiment. Which of the following statements is appropriate for describing the interaction effect? A. The effect of gender of the confederate depends on the type of outcome. B. The effect of the type of outcome depends on the gender of the confederate. C. Both statements (A and B) are appropriate to describe the interaction effect. D. Neither statement (A nor B) is appropriate to describe the interaction effect.