Q&A Hero

Q: Life review: A. suggests that many individuals will achieve greater life satisfaction if they continue their middle-adulthood roles into late adulthood. B. might result in increased meaning in life and mastery, but it also might revive bitterness and negative thoughts. C. revealed that those who were more physically active had higher life satisfaction and greater social interaction than their physically inactive counterparts. D.

Q: Which of the following is the positive resolution of the psychological conflict of basic trust vs. mistrust? A. Hope B. Purpose C. Competence D.

Q: According to Erikson, the positive resolution of which developmental stage culminates in existential identity in old age? A. Generativity vs. stagnation B. Industry vs. inferiority C. Integrity vs. despair D.

Q: According to Erikson, the positive resolution of the conflict of generativity vs. stagnation culminates in _____ in old age. A. caring for others, and empathy and concern B. existential identity C. a sense of complexity of relationships D.

Q: Which of the following is the positive resolution of the psychological conflict of initiative vs. guilt? A. Fidelity B. Purpose C. Competence D.

Q: Which of the following is the positive resolution of the psychological conflict of autonomy vs. shame? A. Fidelity B. Purpose C. Competence D.

Q: According to Erikson, which of the following stages of development does an individual experience in toddlerhood? A. Autonomy vs. shame B. Industry vs. inferiority C. Basic trust vs. mistrust D.

Q: Which of the following is the positive resolution of the psychological conflict of generativity vs. stagnation? A. Infidelity B. Wisdom C. Care D.

Q: Which of the following is the positive resolution of the psychological conflict of intimacy vs. isolation? A. Infidelity B. Wisdom C. Care D.

Q: Which of the following is the positive resolution of the psychological conflict of identity vs. confusion? A. Fidelity B. Wisdom C. Care D.

Q: Which of the following is the positive resolution of the psychological conflict of industry vs. inferiority? A. Fidelity B. Wisdom C. Competence D.

Q: According to Erikson, which of the following stages of development does an individual experience in middle adulthood? A. Generativity vs. stagnation B. Autonomy vs. shame C. Industry vs. inferiority D.

Q: According to Erik Erikson's developmental stages, which of the following is the resolution an individual is most likely to experience if he or she is in the last stage of human development? A. Generativity vs. stagnation B. Autonomy vs. shame C. Industry vs. inferiority D.

Q: Identify Erikson's developmental stage that individuals experience in adolescence. A. Generativity vs. stagnation B. Autonomy vs. shame C. Identity vs. confusion D.

Q: Identify Erikson's developmental stage that individuals experience in school age. A. Generativity vs. stagnation B. Industry vs. inferiority C. Identity vs. confusion D.

Q: Which of the following of Erikson's developmental stages do individuals experience in early childhood? A. Initiative vs. guilt B. Industry vs. inferiority C. Identity vs. confusion D.

Q: According to Erikson, which of the following stages of development does an individual experience in infancy? A. Autonomy vs. shame B. Industry vs. inferiority C. Basic trust vs. mistrust D.

Q: Erikson believed that elderly adults use their impending death as a motivation to look back and evaluate their life. This form of retrospection is what many theorists call: A. life review. B. identity resolution. C. integrity formation. D.

Q: Which of the following statements about life review is NOT true? A. Life reviews avoid reflecting on regrets. B. Life reviews can include sociocultural dimensions. C. Life reviews lead to revision or expanded understanding of experiences. D.

Q: According to Erik Erikson's developmental stages, which of the following is the resolution an individual is most likely to experience if he or she is in the last stage of human development? A. Care B. Fidelity C. Wisdom D.

Q: Robert Butler states that life review is set in motion by: A. retrospective glances on life's worth. B. looking forward to death. C. handing over the legacy to the next generation. D.

Q: Which of the following is prominent in Erikson's final stage of integrity versus despair? A. Life review B. Identity resolution C. Integrity formation D.

Q: According to Erik Erikson, which of the following stages of development does an individual experience in late adulthood? A. Generativity vs. stagnation B. Autonomy vs. shame C. Industry vs. inferiority D.

Q: According to Erikson, the _____ stage of development involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one's life has not been well spent. A. integrity vs. despair B. autonomy vs. shame C. industry vs. inferiority D.

Q: All of the following are part of the life review process EXCEPT: A. looking back at one's life experiences. B. evaluating life experiences. C. projecting future life experiences. D.

Q: Erik Erikson believed that people who experience isolation and stagnation in earlier adulthood are more likely to experience _____ in later adulthood. A. despair B. inferiority C. shame and doubt D.

Q: According to Erik Erikson, what is the last stage of development in life? A. Death vs. dying B. Integrity vs. despair C. Immortality vs. death D.

Q: What are the typical effects of ageism? Social participation by older adults is often discouraged by ageism, which is prejudice against others because of their age, especially prejudice against older adults. They are often perceived as incapable of thinking clearly, learning new things, enjoying sex, contributing to the community, or holding responsible jobs. Because of their age, older adults might not be hired for new jobs or might be eased out of old ones; they might be shunned socially; and they might be edged out of their family life. A recent study revealed that perceiving themselves as different (self-differentiation) from others in their age group was effective in reducing the impact of negative information on older adults self-evaluation.

Q: How does generational inequity influence policymaking? Generational inequity is the view that our aging society is being unfair to its younger members because older adults pile up advantages by receiving an inequitably large allocation of resources. Some authors have argued that generational inequity produces intergenerational conflict and divisiveness in the society at large. The generational equity issue raises questions about whether the young should be required to pay for the old. This concern has especially increased with the enactment of the governments Affordable Care Act in which healthy younger adults, who use the health care system far less than older adults, nonetheless are required to sign up for the health care program or pay a penalty.

Q: Describe the changes that occur in a traditional couple during the final stage of the marriage process and how they adjust to these changes. In the traditional family, the husband works and the wife is a homemaker. After retirement, the husband may not know what to do with his time, and his wife may feel uneasy having him around the house so much of the day. In traditional families, both partners may need to move toward more expressive roles. The husband must adjust from being the provider outside of the home to being a helper around the house; the wife must change from being the only homemaker to being a partner who shares and delegates household duties. Marital happiness as an older adult is also affected by each partner's ability to deal with personal conflicts, including aging, illness, and eventual death. In late adulthood, married individuals are more likely to find themselves having to care for a sick partner with a limiting health condition. The stress of caring for a spouse who has a chronic disease can place demands on intimacy.

Q: What is the role of gender in relationships involving older adult parents and their children?

Q: Describe the influence of ethnicity in old age.

Q: Which of the following is Erikson's eighth stage of development? A. Generativity vs. stagnation B. Integrity vs. despair C. Industry vs. inferiority D.

Q: What does the cross-sectional study by Ursula Staudinger on personal life investments across age groups reveal? A cross-sectional study by Ursula Staudinger assessed the personal life investments of 25- to 105-year-olds. From 25 to 34 years of age, participants said that they personally invested more time in work, friends, family, and independence, in that order. From 35 to 54 and 55 to 65 years of age, family became more important than friends to them in terms of their personal investment. Little changed in the rank ordering of persons 70 to 84 years old, but for participants 85 to 105 years old, health became the most important personal investment. Thinking about life showed up for the first time on the most important list for those who were 85 to 105 years old.

Q: Discuss the Big Five personality factors that influence mortality of older adults. Researchers have found that some personality traits are associated with the mortality of older adults. One study revealed that the Big Five personality factor of conscientiousness predicted lower risk of earlier death from childhood through late adulthood. A higher level of conscientiousness has been linked to living a longer life than the other four factors. Following are the results of three other studies of the Big Five factors in older adults: The transition into late adulthood was characterized by increases in these aspects of conscientiousness: impulse control, reliability, and conventionality. Perceived social support predicted increased conscientiousness in older adults. More severe depression in older adults was associated with higher neuroticism and lower extraversion and conscientiousness. Elevated neuroticism, lower conscientiousness, and lower openness were related to an increased risk of older adults developing Alzheimer disease across a period of six years. Affect and outlook on life are also linked to mortality in older adults. Older adults characterized by negative affect dont live as long as those who display more positive affect, and optimistic older adults who have a positive outlook on life live longer than their counterparts who are more pessimistic and have a negative outlook on life.

Q: Explain in brief the impact of aging on self-esteem. What are the reasons for declining self-esteem in older adults? Studies indicate that self-esteem increased in the twenties, leveled off in the thirties and forties, rose considerably in the fifties and sixties, and then dropped significantly in the seventies and eighties. Throughout most of the adult years, the self-esteem of males was higher than the self-esteem of females. However, in the seventies and eighties, the self-esteem of males and females converged. Explanations for declining self-esteem in older adults include deteriorating physical health and negative societal attitudes toward older adults, although these factors were not examined in the large-scale study conducted. Researchers have found that in late adulthood, being widowed, institutionalized, or physically impaired, having a low religious commitment, and experiencing a decline in health are linked to low self-esteem. Although older adults may derive self-esteem from earlier successes in some domains, such as work and family, some aspects of their lives require continued support for self-esteem. For example, older adults self-esteem benefits when they are told they are nice and accepted by others. A recent study revealed that older adults had higher self-esteem when they had a youthful identity and more positive personal experiences. And another recent study also found that older adults with higher self-esteem were more likely to be characterized by successful aging factors.

Q: What is the socioemotional selectivity theory? Socioemotional selectivity theory states that older adults become more selective about their social networks. Because they place a high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults often spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships. This theory states that older adults deliberately withdraw from social contact with individuals peripheral to their lives while maintaining or increasing contact with close friends and family members with whom they have had enjoyable relationships. This selective narrowing of social interaction maximizes positive emotional experiences and minimizes emotional risks as individuals become older. Socioemotional selectivity theory challenges the stereotype that the majority of older adults are in emotional despair because of their social isolation. Rather, older adults consciously choose to decrease the total number of their social contacts in favor of spending increasing time in emotionally rewarding moments with friends and family. That is, they systematically refine their social networks so that available social partners satisfy their emotional needs.

Q: What are the two important classes of goals identified by socioemotional theory? How do they differ across different age periods? Socioemotional theory suggests that there are two important classes of goals (1) knowledge-related and (2) emotional. This theory emphasizes that the trajectory of motivation for knowledge-related goals starts relatively high in the early years of life, peaking in adolescence and early adulthood, and then declining in middle and late adulthood. The emotion trajectory is high during infancy and early childhood, declines from middle childhood through early adulthood, and increases in middle and late adulthood. One of the main reasons given for these changing trajectories in knowledge-related and emotion-related goals involves the perception of time. When time is perceived as open-ended, as it is when individuals are younger, people are more strongly motivated to pursue information, even at the cost of emotional satisfaction. But as older adults perceive that they have less time left in their lives, they are motivated to spend more time pursuing emotional satisfaction.

Q: Identify the term which represents physical and emotional caretaking for older members of the family, either by giving day-to-day physical assistance or by being responsible for overseeing such care. Eldercare

Q: What is the term for the view that our aging society is being unfair to its younger members because older adults receive inequitably large allocations of resources?

Q: Identify the social support model that says that individuals go through life embedded in a personal network of individuals from who they give and receive social support.

Q: Discuss Erikson's final stage of development. Integrity versus despair is Erikson's eighth and final stage of development, which individuals experience during late adulthood. This stage involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one's life has not been well spent. If the older adult has developed a positive outlook in each of the preceding periods, retrospective glances and reminiscences will reveal a picture of a life well spent, and the older adult will be satisfied (integrity). But if the older adult resolved one or more of the earlier stages in a negative way, retrospective glances about the total worth of his/her life might be negative (despair).

Q: What does activity theory suggest for older adults? Activity theory states that the more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives. Researchers have found strong support for activity theory, beginning in the 1960s and continuing into the twenty-first century. These researchers have found that when older adults are active, energetic, and productive, they age more successfully and are happier than if they disengage from society. A recent study found that older adults were happiest when they combined effortful social, physical, cognitive, and household activities with restful activities. Another recent study of Canadian older adults revealed that those who were more physically active had higher life satisfaction and greater social interaction than their physically inactive counterparts. Activity theory suggests that many individuals will achieve greater life satisfaction if they continue their middle-adulthood roles into late adulthood. If these roles are stripped from them (as in early retirement), it is important for them to find substitute roles that keep them active and involved.

Q: Identify the type of therapy that involves discussing past activities and experiences with another individual or group. Reminiscence therapy

Q: Which theory of aging suggests that older adults become more selective about their social networks because they place a high value on emotional satisfaction in their relationships?

Q: Identify the theorist who proposed the "selective optimization with compensation theory" of aging.

Q: What is the term for a concept that suggests that it is possible to maintain performance in some areas through continued practice and the use of new technologies?

Q: What is the term for prejudice against individuals because of their age, especially prejudice against older adults? Ageism

Q: It is observed that respect for older adults is greater in _____ cultures than in _____ cultures. A. socialistic; capitalistic B. spiritualistic; competitive C. collectivistic; individualistic D.

Q: Which of the following factors is most likely to predict high status for older adults in a culture? A. Age-related role changes involve reduced responsibility. B. Older persons control key family/community resources. C. Nuclear families are the most common family arrangement in a culture. D.

Q: According to Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, what is the eighth and final stage of development?

Q: What is the term for the process of looking back at one's life experiences, evaluating them, interpreting them, and often reinterpreting them?

Q: What is the "triple jeopardy" faced by African American and Latino women when it comes to income and financial levels of support in the elder years? A. Ageism, sexism, and racism B. Medicare, Medicaid, and welfare C. Unemployment, poverty, and insufficient Medicare D.

Q: Which of the following is NOT a factor that predicts high status for the elderly in a culture? A. Whether older people control key community resources B. Whether the extended family is a common family arrangement C. Whether older people are permitted to engage in useful functions D.

Q: Which of the following statements about social support for older adults is NOT true? A. Social support for older adults may vary across cultures. B. Friends play a vital role in social support. C. Married people need less formal social support than single people. D.

Q: Which of the following could be the probable reason why older adults tend to report being less lonely than younger adults? A. Younger adults tend to perceive time differently, influencing their definition of loneliness. B. Most of the older adults are in community homes, thus reducing loneliness. C. Most of the older adults tend to reemploy themselves, thus reducing loneliness. D.

Q: Which of the following is true of altruism and volunteering in adults? A. Younger adults are more likely than any other group to volunteer more than 100 hours annually. B. A common perception is that older adults need to be given help rather than give help themselves. C. Younger adults strategies are more likely to be aimed at contributing to the public good, while older adults strategies are more likely to focus on optimizing personal financial gain. D.

Q: The reason why many ethnic minority workers never enjoy the Social Security and Medicare benefits to which their earnings contribute is because: A. most of them do not qualify for these benefits. B. they die before reaching the age of eligibility for benefits. C. their contributions to the benefits are negligible and thus might not get sufficient benefits. D.

Q: Identify the possible double jeopardy for elderly ethnic minority individuals. A. Sexism and chauvinism B. Nepotism and egotism C. Adultism and adultcentrism D.

Q: As a result of aging, which of the following is NOT likely to deteriorate? A. Discrimination B. Comparison C. Language comprehension D.

Q: Which of the following concepts have distinctions similar to the ones between cognitive mechanics and cognitive pragmatics? A. Gross motor skills and fine motor skills B. Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence C. Physiological control and psychological control D.

Q: Which of the following factors are most likely to contribute to the decline in fluid mechanics in late adulthood? A. Decline in writing skills B. Decline in processing speed C. Decline in language comprehension D.

Q: Which of the following is a recent trend in grandparenting? A. Both grandparents moving in with parents to care for grandchildren B. An increase in the number of grandparents becoming great-grandparents C. Grandparents shifting away from the role of distant figure and toward the role of fun-seeker D.

Q: Alice, Jane, Lois, and Sandra have been friends since grade school. Over the years, they have given each other support and shared in each other's joys and sadness. Which model of social relations does this scenario represent? A. The longitudinal model B. The cohort model C. The convoy model D.

Q: For older adults, social support is linked to a(n): A. increased probability of becoming institutionalized. B. higher socioeconomic status. C. increase in mortality rates. D.

Q: Which of the following is NOT a component of cognitive pragmatics? A. Language comprehension B. Knowledge about the self C. Life skills D.

Q: Cognitive _____ declines in old age, whereas cognitive _____ appears to remain constant or increase. A. mechanics; pragmatics B. pragmatics; mechanics C. pragmatics; reasoning D.

Q: Which of the following statements about cognitive mechanics and cognitive pragmatics is true? A. Educational qualifications and professional skills are components of cognitive pragmatics. B. Cognitive mechanics improves in late adulthood. C. Decline in cognitive pragmatics may begin as soon as early midlife. D.

Q: Speed and accuracy of the processes involved in sensory input, attention, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization are components of: A. cognitive perceptions. B. cognitive pragmatics. C. cognitive mechanics. D.

Q: _____ are the culture-based "software programs" of the mind. A. Cognitive functions B. Cognitive perceptions C. Cognitive mechanics D.

Q: What is Denise Park and Patricia Reuter-Lorenz's view on the aging brain and cognition?

Q: What is discourse? What are some of the changes in discourse that occur with aging? Discourse refers to extended verbal expression in speech or writing. Researchers have found conflicting information about changes in discourse with aging. Some have reported increased elaborateness, while others have reported less varied and less complex syntax. One aspect of discourse where age differences have been found involves retelling a story or giving instructions for completing a task. When engaging in this type of discourse, older adults are more likely than younger adults to omit key elements, creating discourse that is less fluent and more difficult to follow. A recent study found that when retelling a story, older adults were more likely than younger adults to compress discourse and less likely to improve the cohesiveness of their narratives.

Q: What are the important factors influencing depression in older adults? Among the most common predictors of depression in older adults are earlier depressive symptoms, poor health, disability, loss events such as the death of a spouse, and low social support. Insomnia is also a risk factor for depression in older adults. Curtailment of daily activities is a common pathway to late-life depression. Often accompanying this curtailment of activity is an increase in self-critical thinking that exacerbates depression. A recent meta-analysis found that the following living arrangements were linked to risk for depression in older adults: living alone, in a nursing home, or in an institutionalized setting.

Q: Define and discuss dementia. Dementia is a global term for any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve a deterioration of mental functioning. Individuals with dementia often lose the ability to care for themselves and can lose the ability to recognize familiar surroundings and peopleincluding family members. It is estimated that 23 percent of women and 17 percent of men 85 years and older are at risk for developing dementia. However, these estimates may be high because of the Alzheimers Associations lobbying efforts to increase funding for research and treatment facilities. Dementia is a broad category, and it is important that every effort is made to determine the specific cause of deteriorating mental functioning.

Q: Briefly describe Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer disease is a progressive, irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually physical functioning. Alzheimer disease involves a deficiency in the important brain messenger chemical acetylcholine, which plays an important role in memory. Also, as Alzheimer disease progresses, the brain shrinks and deteriorates. Because of differences in onset, Alzheimer also is now described as early-onset (initially occurring in individuals younger than 65 years of age) or late-onset (which has its initial onset in individuals 65 years of age and older). Because of the increasing prevalence of Alzheimer disease, researchers have stepped up their efforts to discover the causes of the disease and to find more effective ways to treat it.

Q: The term Baltes uses to describe the "hardware" of the mind, meaning the neurophysiological architecture of the brain that was developed through evolution, is: A. cognitive mechanics. B. cognitive perceptions. C. crystallized pragmatics. D.

Q: Identify a type of dementia that is characterized by muscle tremors, a gradual slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis.

Q: What is cognitive pragmatics? Explain in brief the distinction between cognitive mechanics and cognitive pragmatics. Cognitive pragmatics are the culture-based software programs of the mind. Cognitive pragmatics include reading and writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and also the type of knowledge about the self and life skills that help people to master or cope with life. Because of the strong influence of culture on cognitive pragmatics, their improvement into old age is possible. Thus, although cognitive mechanics may decline in old age, cognitive pragmatics may actually improve, at least until individuals become very old. The distinction between cognitive mechanics and cognitive pragmatics is similar to the one between fluid (mechanics) and crystallized (pragmatics) intelligence.

Q: Describe the status of semantic memory as individuals age.

Q: What are some of the noncognitive factors that affect memory? Health, education, and socioeconomic status (SES) can influence an older adult's performance on memory tasks. Although such noncognitive factors as good health are associated with less memory decline in older adults, they do not eliminate memory decline. A recent study revealed that older adults with less education had lower cognitive abilities than those with more education. However, for older adults with less education, frequently engaging in cognitive activities improved their episodic memory. Also, a recent study found that older adults with a higher level of education had better cognitive functioning.